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'  The  first  farmer  was  the  first  man.  and  all  historic 
nobility  rests  on  possession  and  use  of  land." 

— Emerson. 


LIPPINCOTT'S 

FARM  MANUALS 

EDITED    BY 
KARY  C.  DAVIS,  Ph.D.  (Cornell) 

PROFESSOR   OF   AGRICULTURE,    SCHOOL   OF   COUNTRY   LIFE 
GEORGE    PEABODY    COLLEGE   FOR   TEACHERS,    NASHVILLE,    TENNESSEE 


PRODUCTIVE 
VEGETABLE  GROWING 


By  JOHN  W.  LLOYD,  M.S.A.  (Cornell  University) 

PROFESSOR  OF  OLERICULTURE  IN  THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  ILLINOIS 


Lippincott's  Farm  Manuals 

Edited  by  K.  C.  DAVIS,  Ph.D.,  Knapp  School  of  Country  Life,  Nashville,  Tenn. 
Every  effort  is  made  to  keep  these  standard  texts  up-to-date,  and 
new  editions  are  published  and  revisions  made  whenever  necessary. 

PRODUCTIVE  SWINE  HUSBANDRY 

By  GEORGE  E.  DAY,  B.S.A.     Third  Edition,  Revised 

PRODUCTIVE  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

By  HARRY  R.  LEWIS,  M.Agr.    Fourth  Edition,  Revised  and  Enlarged 
PRODUCTIVE  HORSE  HUSBANDRY 

By  CARL  W.  GAY,  D.V.M.,  B.S.A.     Third  Edition.  Revised 

PRODUCTIVE  ORCHARDING 

By  FRED  C.  SEARS,  M.S.     Second  Edition,  Revised 

PRODUCTIVE  VEGETABLE  GROWING 

By  JOHN  W.  LLOYD,  M.S. A.    Third  Edition  Revised 

PRODUCTIVE  FEEDING  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

By  F.  W.  WOLL,  Ph.D.,  Third  Edition,  Revised 

COMMON  DISEASES  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

By  R.  A.  CRAIG,  D.V.M.,  Third  Edition,  Revised 

PRODUCTIVE  FARM  CROPS 

By  E.  G.   MONTGOMERY,  M.A.     Third  Edition,  Revised 

PRODUCTIVE  BEE  KEEPING 

By  FRANK  C.  PELLETT.     Second  Edition,  Revised 

PRODUCTIVE  DAIRYING 

By  R.   M.  WASHBURN,  M.S.A.     Second  Edition,  Revised 

INJURIOUS  INSECTS  AND  USEFUL  BIRDS 
By  F.  L.  WASHBURN,  M.A. 

PRODUCTIVE  SHEEP  HUSBANDRY 
By  WALTER  C.  COFFEY,  M.A. 

PRODUCTIVE  SMALL  FRUIT  CULTURE 
By  FRED  C.  SEARS,  M.S. 

PRODUCTIVE  SOILS 

By  WILBERT  W.  WEIR,  M.S. 

LIPPINCOTT'S  COLLEGE  TEXTS 

SOIL  PHYSICS  AND  MANAGEMENT 

By  J.  G.  MOSIER,  B.S.,  A.  F.  GUSTAFSON,  M.S. 

FARM  LIFE  TEXT  SERIES 

APPLIED  ECONOMIC  BOTANY 
By  MELVILLE  T.  COOK,  Ph.D. 

PRODUCTIVE  PLANT  HUSBANDRY 

By  KARY  C.  DAVIS.    Second  Edition,  Revised 

HORTICULTURE  FOR  HIGH  SCHOOLS 
By  KARY  C.  DAVIS.    Second  Edition,  Revised 

PRODUCTIVE  SOILS  (Abridged  Edition) 
By  WILBERT  W.  WEIR,  M.S. 

VOCATIONAL  CHEMISTRY 

By  J.  J.  WILLAMAN 

LABORATORY  MANUALS  AND  NOTEBOOKS 

ON  THE  FOLLOWING  SUBJECTS 

SOILS,  By  J.  F.  EASTMAN  and  K.  C.  DAVIS         POULTRY,  By  H.  R.  LEWIS 

DAIRYING,  By  E.  L.  ANTHONY  FEEDING,  By  F.  W.  WOLL 

FARM  CROPS,  By  F.  W.  LATHROP 


Lippincott's   Farm   Manuals 

EDITED  BY  K.  C.  DAVIS,  Ph.D. 

PRODUCTIVE 
VEGETABLE  GROWING 


BY 

JOHN  W.  LLOYD,  Ph.D., 

PROFESSOR  OF  OLERICULTURE  IN  THE  UNIVERSITY  OF   ILLINOIS 


19 A  ILLUSTRATIONS  IN  THE  TEXT 


"  If  vain  our  toil, 
We  ought  to  blame  the  culture,  not  the  soil." 
Pope — Essay  on  Man 


FOURTH  EDITION  REVISED 


PHILADELPHIA  &  LONDON 
J.  B.  LIPPINCOTT  COMPANY 


COPYRIGHT,    1914,    1915,    IQl8 
BY  J.  B.  LIPPINCOTT  COMPANY 


COPYRIGHT.    1923 
BY  J.  B.  LIPPINCOTT  COMPANY 


Electrotyped  and  Printed  by  J.  B.  Lippincott  Company 
The  Washington  Square  Press,  Philadelphia,  U.  S.  A. 


LIBRARY 

0*0*  State  College 

PREFACE  TO  THE  FOURTH  EDITION 

Interest  in  vegetables  has  greatly  increased  during  the  past 
few  years,  and  they  now  occupy  a  much  more  prominent  place  in 
the  diet  of  many  people  than  was  formerly  the  case.  This  is  due 
partly  to  the  stimulation  of  home  vegetable  gardening  during  the 
World  War,  and  partly  to  the  increased  knowledge  regarding  the 
real  value  of  vegetables  in  the  diet.  The  recent  discovery  that 
many  vegetables  are  rich  in  vitamins,  and  that  the  presence  of 
vitamins  in  the  diet  is  essential  to  human  health,  has  emphasized 
the  importance  of  vegetables  as  a  source  of  human  food. 

The  present  edition  of  Productive  Vegetable  Growing  is  de- 
signed, to  meet  the  needs  of  the  practical  gardner  as  well  as  the 
student.  It  has  been  revised  in  the  light  of  new  developments  in 
vegetable  production  and  gives  many  details  not  included  in  former 
editions.  It  includes  also  a  discussion  of  the  importance  of  the 
vegetable  industry  in  the  United  States  as  based  upon  figures 
given  in  the  Fourteenth  Census  Report  (1919).  Additions  to  the 
Appendix  include  a  chart  showing  the  relative  vitamin  content  of 
different  vegetables,  and  tables  of  interest  in  connection  with  the 
purchase  and  planting  of  seeds. 

It  is  hoped  that  the  new  edition  will  meet  the  same  hearty 
approval  of  educators  and  gardeners  as  have  the  three  earlier 
editions  of  the  work. 

John  W.  Lloyd. 
Urbana,  Illinois. 
June,  1923. 

VV 

104 


PREFACE  TO  THIRD  EDITION 

The  War  has  given  a  special  impetus  to  vegetable  production, 
and  particularly  to  the  planting  of  home  gardens.  The  substitu- 
tion of  vegetables  for  some  of  the  more  concentrated  foods  in  the 
diet  of  civilians  will  release  for  the  use  of  the  American  army  and 
the  Allies  large  quantities  of  cereals  and  meats.  So  far  as  these 
vegetables  are  the  products  of  home  gardens,  they  will  reduce  the 
amount  of  transportation  necessary  to  supply  food  to  the  American 
people,  and  thus  assist  in  relieving  the  railroads  in  this  time  of 
congested  traffic. 

There  was  never  a  time  when  home  gardens  were  more  impor- 
tant; yet  in  the  present  effort  to  increase  vegetable  production, 
there  is  likely  to  be  large  waste  of  energy  and  seeds  by  those  pre- 
viously unfamiliar  with  vegetable  gardening,  unless  they  have 
proper  guidance.  The  special  literature  being  published  to  meet 
this  emergency  is  good  in  many  respects,  but  much  of  it  is  frag- 
mentary and  leaves  the  reader  without  a  firm  grasp  of  fundamental 
principles  of  gardening.  It  is  hoped  that  the  present  edition  of 
Productive  Vegetable  Growing  will  supply  this  need,  and  be  of 
material  assistance  to  planters  of  "war  gardens." 

John  W.  Lloyd. 
Urbana,  Illinois, 
January,  1918. 


PREFACE 

Books  on  vegetable  production  have  been  written  from  the 
viewpoint  of  the  East,  West,  North  and  South.  The  present 
volume  is  written  from  the  viewpoint  of  conditions  as  they  exist 
in  the  great  central  prairie  region,  known  agriculturally  as  the 
corn  belt.  But  the  principles  here  laid  down  are  applicable  in  all 
sections.  The  cultural  requirements  of  the  various  crops  have 
been  analyzed  in  the  light  of  many  years'  experience  with  vege- 
tables, and  an  attempt  has  been  made  to  present  the  underlying 
principles  of  vegetable  production  in  a  clear  and  logical  manner, 
and  place  vegetable  gardening  on  a  rational  basis.  It  is  impossible 
for  man  to  control  the  climate  of  a  given  locality.  It  is  possible, 
however,  for  him  to  adapt  his  gardening  operations  to  the  con- 
ditions as  he  finds  them.  Knowing  the  temperature  requirements 
of  a  given  crop  and  the  length  of  season  demanded  for  its  develop- 
ment, he  can  adjust  the  time  of  planting  and  method  of  handling 
to  meet  as  fully  as  possible  the  needs  of  the  particular  crop.  But 
in  spite  of  all  that  can  be  done  even  by  the  well-informed  gardener, 
vegetables  demanding  radically  different  climatic  conditions  may 
not  thrive  equally  well  in  the  same  garden.  A  reasonable  degree 
of  success  with  a  large  number  of  different  vegetables  can  be 
attained  by  a  careful  grower  in  almost  any  locality,  but  the  com- 
mercial production  of  special  crops  should  rarely  be  undertaken 
except  in  localities  where  the  climatic  and  other  conditions  are 
especially  favorable  for  the  particular  crop  in  question. 

A  thorough  understanding  of  the  temperature  requirements 
of  the  different  crops  is  considered  of  such  vital  importance  to 
productive  vegetable  growing  that  this  feature  is  made  the  basis 
of  the  classification  of  vegetables  used  in  the  present  volume, 
and  is  given  special  prominence  in  the  cultural  directions  for  the 
various  crops. 

The  aim  throughout  the  book  has  been  to  emphasize  principles 
rather  than  mere  details  of  practice.  The  order  of  presentation 
has  been  carefully  planned,  and  in  using  the  book  as  a  text, 
the  various  topics  should  be  taken  up  in  the  order  presented. 
The  Suggestions  for  Laboratory  Work,  in  Chapter  XXXIII,  how- 
ever, should  be  read  by  the  instructor  before  beginning  the  course. 


vi  PREFACE 

In  discussing  the  handling  of  the  individual  crops,  it  is  assumed 
that  the  earlier  chapters  of  the  book  have  already  been  mastered, 
and  details  of  numerous  operations  are  not  repeated. 

While  this  book  is  intended  primarily  as  a  text  for  use  hi  schools 
and  colleges,  it  is  the  hope  of  the  author  that  it  may  also  prove 
helpful  to  the  ever-increasing  number  of  persons  who  desire  to 
supply  their  tables  with  vegetables  from  their  own  gardens,  and 
to  persons  who  contemplate  the  commercial  production  of  vege- 
tables as  a  business. 

The  author  wishes  to  acknowledge  his  indebtedness  to  the 
Illinois  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  for  the  use  of  many 
negatives  in  preparing  the  illustrations,  and  for  permission  to  use 
certain  material  from  the  publications  of  this  Station.  He  is 
also  especially  grateful  to  Mr.  C.  E.  Durst  for  taking  the  photo- 
graphs to  make  the  following  illustrations:  Frontispiece,  Figs 
4,  8,  17,  24,  26,  27,  28,  32,  45,  53,  60,  65,  68,  69,  73,  82,  89,  102, 
125,  127,  131,  132,  133,  134,  136,  137,  158,  159,  160,  161,  162,  184 
and  191.  Thanks  are  also  due  to  W.  Atlee  Burpee  &  Co.,  Phila- 
delphia, Pa.,  for  Figs.  9,  10,  56,  93  and  185;  to  the  Bateman  Mfg. 
Co.,  Grenloch,  N.  J.,  for  Figs.  29,  39,  40,  44,  50,  107,  116,  117, 
118,  122  and  164;  to  the  Madison  Plow  Co.,  Madison,  Wis.,  for 
Fig.  31;  to  Dr.  S.  A.  Forbes,  State  Entomologist,  Urbana,  111., 
for  Figs.  46,  47,  48,  129  and  130;  to  the  John  A.  Salzer  Seed  Co., 
La  Crosse,  Wis.,  for  Fig.  55;  to  the  Henry  Field  Seed  Co.,  Shenan- 
doah, Iowa,  for  Figs.  67  and  120;  to  R.  &  J.  Farquhar  &  Co., 
Boston,  Mass.,  for  Fig.  124;  to  Wm.  Siebold,  Peoria,  111.,  for  Fig. 
179;  to  J.  J.  Gardner,  for  Figs.  186  and  188;  to  C.  B.  Sayre,  for 
Figs.  97  and  189;  to  the  Orange  Judd  Co.,  New  York,  for  Fig.  49; 
to  L.  L.  May  &  Co.,  St.  Paul,  Minn.,  for  Figs.  62  and  119;  to 
P.  K.  Blinn,  Rocky  Ford,  Colo.,  for  Fig.  19a;  to  Walter  S. 
Schell,  Harrisburg,  Pa.,  for  Fig.  138;  and  to  Holmes-Letherman 
Seed  Co.,  Canton  O.,  for  Fig.  143. 

John  W.  Lloyd. 
Urbana,  Illinois, 
July,  1914. 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  *  PAGE 

I.  Types  of  Vegetable  Growing 1 

Market  gardening — Truck  growing  or  truck  farming — 
Growing  vegetables  for  the  cannery — Home  vegetable 
gardening. 

II.  Soil  and  Location 9 

III.  Factors  Influencing  the  Quality  of  Vegetables 12 

IV.  The  Seed  Supply 16 

The  vitality  of  seeds. 

V.  The  Plant  Food  Supply 25 

Animal  manures — Compost — Green  manures — Commer- 
cial fertilizers — Time  and  method  of  application — Quan- 
tities of  manure  and  fertilizer  to  use. 

VI.  The  Moisture  Supply 35 

Sources  of  water  supply — Irrigation — Conservation  of 
moisture. 

VII.  The  Temperature  Factor 43 

Cool  season  crops— Warm  season  crops. 

VIII.  Transplanting 48 

Methods  of  transplanting. 

IX.  The  Use  of  Glass  in  Vegetable  Growing 58 

Construction  of  manure  hotbeds — Construction  of  fire 
hotbeds — Construction  of  coldframes — Care  of  plants 
under  glass. 

X.  The  Preparation  of  Soil  for  Planting 70 

XI.  The  Planting  of  Seeds 74 

Depth  of  planting — Distance  of  planting — Thickness  of 
seeding — Methods  of  sowing  seeds. 

XII.  Controlling  Insects  and  Diseases  That  Attack  Vege- 
table Crops 83 

Spraying — Formulas  for  spray  mixtures — General  prin- 
ciples of  spraying. 

XIII.  Classification  of  Vegetables 96 

XIV.  Cool  Season  Crops  That  Quickly  Reach  Edible  Maturity    98 

Spring  Salads:    Leaf  lettuce — Garden  cress — Corn  salad. 

Spring  Greens:    Spinach — Mustard. 

Short  season  root  crops:  Radishes — Turnips— Kohlrabi — 

Rutabagas. 

Peas. 

XV.  Transplanted  Crops  That  Mature  Before  the  Heat  of 

Summer 114 

Head  lettuce — Cos  lettuce — Early  cabbage — Early  cauli- 
flower. 

vii 


vni  CONTENTS 

XVI.  Late  Cabbage  and  Similar  Crops 124 

Late  cabbage  —  Late  cauliflower  —  Broccoli  —  Brussels 
sprouts. 

XVII.  Celery 133 

Celeriac  or  turnip-rooted  celery. 

XVIII.  Root  Crops  That  Endure  Summer  Heat 144 

Beets  and  carrots — Parsnips — Salsify — Horse-radish. 

XIX.  Greens  and  Salad  Plants  That  Endure  Heat 152 

Chard  or  Swiss  chard — Kale  or  borecole — Collards — New 
Zealand  spinach — Dandelion — Parsley — Upland  cress — 
Endive. 

XX.  The  Onion  Group 162 

Onions:    Growing  ripe  onions  from  seed — Types  of  onions 
— The  transplanting  method — Growing  ripe  onions  from 
sets — Growing  onion  sets — Green  bunch  onions. 
Other    Onion-like    Plants:    Leeks  —  Garlic  —  Shallots  — 
Chives. 

XXL  Potatoes 186 

XXII.  Perennial  Crops 193 

Asparagus — Rhubarb — Globe  artichoke — Sea-kale. 

XXIII.  Beans 205 

String  beans — Green  shell  beans — Dry  shell  beans. 

XXIV.  Sweet  Corn  and  Other  Crops  with  Similar  Cultural 

Requirements 212 

Sweet  corn — Pop  corn — Okra  or  gumbo. 

XXV.  The  Vine  Crops 217 

Muskmelons — Watermelons — Citron  or  preserving  melons 
— Cucumbers — Gherkins — Squashes — Pumpkins. 

XXVI.  Warm  Season  Crops  That  Require  Transplanting 244 

Tomatoes — Eggplants — Peppers — Sweet  potatoes. 

XXVII.  Systems  of  Intensive  Cropping 260 

XXVIII.  The  Home  Vegetable  Garden 265 

The  farmer's  garden — The  village  or  suburban  garden — 
The  city  garden — Varieties  of  vegetables  for  the  home 
garden— Quantities  of  seed  to  buy. 

XXIX.  Harvesting  and  Marketing 278 

Care  of  vegetables  between  harvesting  and  marketing — 
Packing  sheds — Preparation  of  vegetables  for  market — 
Selling  the  crop. 

XXX.  The  Storage  of  Vegetables  for  Winter  Use 304 

.  Vegetable  storage  houses — Storage  in  small  quantities  for 
home  use. 

XXXI.  Forcing  Vegetables 312 

XXXII.  Extent  of  Vegetable  Growing  in  the  United  States.  . . .  319 

XXXIII.  Suggestions  for  Laboratory  Work 324 

Appendix.     Composition  of  Vegetables 327 


ILLUSTRATIONS 


PACE 


Wheel  Hoe  in  Operation Frontispiece 

1.  Market  Garden  near  Boston,  on  Land  Worth  $10,000  per  Acre.  ...  2 

2.  Field  of  Muskmelons 5 

3.  Farmer's  Home  Vegetable  Garden 7 

4.  Michigan  Celery  Field 9 

5.  Result  of  Planting  Unreliable  Seed 16 

6.  Good  and  Poor  Types  of  Cabbage  of  the  Same  Variety 17 

7.  Sectional  Views  of  the  Cabbage  Heads  Shown  in  Fig.  6 18 

8.  Result  of  Five  Years'  Selection  for  Thickness  of  Flesh  in  Muskmelons  18 

9.  Washing  Tomato  Seed 19 

10.  View  in  Seedsman's  Trial  Grounds 21 

11.  Compost  Pile  Being  Made  in  September  for  Use  the  Following  May  27 

12.  Heavy  Growth  of  Cow  Peas  to  be  Plowed  under  for  Green  Manure  28 

13.  Four-horse  Load  of  Manure  near  Boston 29 

14.  Manure  Spreader  in  Operation 31 

15.  Applying  Manure  to  Melon  Hills 32 

16.  Making  Heavy  Application  of  Manure  for  Fall  Crop  of  Spinach. ...  33 

17.  Skinner  System  of  Irrigation  in  Operation 36 

18.  Irrigating  Onions  near  Greeley,  Colorado 37 

19.  Field  of  Cabbage  Furrowed  out  ready  for  Irrigating 38 

19a.  Furrow  Irrigation  of  Melons  Immediately  Following  Planting 39 

20.  Plantation  of  Lettuce  Arranged  for  Raised-Bed  Irrigation 39 

21.  Narrow  Tooth  Cultivator 40 

22.  Conserving  Moisture  by  Thorough  Tillage 41 

23.  Well-grown  Tomato  Plants  ready  for  Transplanting 50 

24.  Transplanting  Lettuce  Seedlings  from  One  Flat  into  Another 52 

25.  Watermelon  Plants  in  Veneer  Dirt  Band,  Ready  for  Transplanting.  53 

26.  A  Pot-grown  Tomato  Plant 53 

27.  Removing  Tops  from  Beet  Seedlings  Preparatory  to  Transplanting.  54 

28.  Beet  and  Onion  Seedlings 54 

29.  Dibber 55 

30.  Trowel 56 

31.  Transplanting  Machine 56 

32.  Cloth-covered  Coldframe 59 

33.  Modern  Greenhouse 59 

34.  Simplest  Form  of  Manure  Hotbed 61 

35.  Diagram  of  Frame  for  Manure  Hotbed 62 

36.  Cross-section  of  Simplest  Form  of  Manure  Hotbed 63 

37.  Longitudinal  Section  of  Fire  Hotbed 65 

38.  Cloth-covered  Coldframe  Eighty-four  Feet  Long 66 


X  ILLUSTRATIONS 

39.  Disk  Harrow 71 

40.  Spike  Tooth  Harrow 72 

41.  Planker 72 

42.  Soil  Sieve 73 

43.  Sled  Marker 80 

44.  Garden  Seed  Drill  in  Operation 81 

45.  Cabbage  Plant  Wrapped  with  Stiff    Paper  as    Protection  against 

Cutworms 84 

46.  Cabbage  Seed-bed  Screened  with  Cheese  Cloth 85 

47.  Potato  Beetle 87 

48.  Squash  Bug 88 

49.  Fungus  Growing  within  the  Tissue  of  a  Leaf 89 

50.  Compressed  Air  Knapsack  Sprayer 92 

51.  Spraying  Eggplants  with  Small-sized  Barrel  Pump 93 

52.  Spraying  Muskmelons  with  Three-row,  Geared-power  Sprayer 94 

53.  Well-developed  Plant  of  Leaf  Lettuce 99 

54.  Corn  Salad 100 

55.  Spinach — a  Typical  Plant 101 

56.  An  Extra  Early  Variety  of  Spring  Radish 104 

57.  Strasburg,  a  Popular  Summer  Radish 1 05 

58.  WTinter  Radish 106 

59.  The  Globe  Type  of  Turnip 107 

60.  Well-grown  Plant  of  Kohlrabi 108 

61.  Wrinkled  Pea  of  High  Quality 109 

62.  Smooth-seeded  Pea  of  the  Hardy  Type 110 

63.  Head  Lettuce  in  Longitudinal  Section 114 

64.  Flats  of  Shifted  Lettuce  Seedlings  on  Greenhouse  Bench 115 

65.  Well-developed  Head  of  Hanson  Lettuce 116 

66.  Frame-work   Covered   with    "Tobacco   Cloth"    to   Afford   Partial 

Shade  for  Head  Lettuce  and  Similar  Crops 117 

67.  Cos  Lettuce  or  Romaine 118 

68.  Early  Cabbage  of  the  Round-headed  Type 119 

69.  Early  Cabbage  of  the  Conical-headed  Type 119 

70.  Longitudinal  Section  of  Three  Heads  of  Conical  Cabbage 119 

71.  Cauliflower  Head  as  it  is  Likely  to  Develop  when  Weather  is  too 

Hot  and  Dry 120 

72.  Typical  Head  of  Early  Cauliflower 120 

73.  Flat  of  Well-grown  Cauliflower  Plants  ready  for  Transplanting 121 

74.  Cauliflower  Tied  up  for  Blanching 122 

75.  Savoy  Cabbage 125 

76.  Field  of  Cabbage  Grown  under  Irrigation 126 

77.  Typical  Plant  of  Broccoli 130 

78.  Plant  of  Brussels  Sprouts  after  Removal  of  Side  Leaves 131 

79.  Flat  of  Celery  Seedlings  ready  for  Pricking  out 135 

80.  Flat  of  Celery  Seedlings  Immediately  after  being  Pricked  out 135 


ILLUSTRATIONS  XI 

81.  Celery  Plants  in  Coldframe 136 

82.  Blanching  Early  Celery  with  Boards 137 

83.  Late  Celery  Banked  with  Earth  for  Blanching 138 

84.  Earth-blanched  Celery  as  Dug  from  the  Field 139 

85.  Bed  of  "New  Celery  Culture"  Celery 140 

86.  "New  Celery  Culture"  Celery  ready  to  Harvest 140 

87.  Celeriac  or  Turnip-rooted  Celery 141 

88.  Young  Beets  Pulled  for  Early  Use 145 

89.  Carrots  of  Three  Types 146 

90.  Well-grown  Specimens  of  Parsnip 147 

91.  Bunch  of  Salsify  Roots  ready  for  Market 149 

92.  Scolymus  or  Spanish  Salsify 149 

93.  Swiss  Chard 153 

94.  Kale 154 

95.  Collard  Plant  at  Stage  of  Development  when  the  Entire  Plant 

(except  the  Root)  Might  be  Used 155 

96.  Edible  Tips  of  New  Zealand  Spinach 156 

97.  Parsley  Plants  in  Six-inch  Pots 157 

98.  Well-grown  Parsley  under  Field  Conditions 158 

99.  Endive  ready  for  Market 159 

100.  A  Well-cured  Sample  of  Dry  or  Ripe  Onions 163 

101.  Meeker  Harrow 164 

102.  Tools  Used  in  Onion  Culture 165 

103.  Single-wheel  Hoe 166 

104.  Results  of  Thinning  Onions 167 

105.  Good  and  Poor  Onions  Shortly  before  Harvest 167 

106.  Properly  and  Improperly  Ripened  Onions 168 

107.  Onion  Harvesting  Attachment  for  Wheel  Hoe 169 

108.  Onion  Starting  into  Growth  soon  after  Harvest 170 

109.  Onion  Curing  Shed  and  Storage  House 171 

110.  Onion  Sets 175 

111.  Onions  from  Sets  and  Seed 176 

112.  Harvesting  Onion  Sets 178 

113.  Onion  Sets  Curing  in  Field 179 

114.  Good  Sample  of  Leeks 182 

115.  Garlic  Bulbs 183 

116.  Potato  Planter  in  Operation 188 

117.  Six-row  Potato  Sprayer  in  Operation 190 

118.  Potato  Digger  in  Operation 191 

119.  Bunch  of  Palmetto  Asparagus  ready  for  Market 194 

120.  Asparagus  Root 196 

121.  Thrifty  Asparagus  Plantation  in  Midsummer 197 

122.  One  Form  of  Knife  Used  in  Cutting  Asparagus 198 

123.  Rhubarb  Plantation 200 

124.  Flower  Bud  of  Globe  Artichoke 202 


Xll  ILLUSTRATIONS 

125.  Bush  Type  of  String  Beans 206 

126.  Plantation  of  Pole  Beans 208 

127.  Bush  Form  of  Small-seeded  Lima 209 

128.  Okra,  a  Favorite  Southern  Vegetable 215 

129.  Striped  Cucumber  Beetle 218 

130.  Melon  Aphis 219 

131.  A  Good  Hill  of  Muskmelons 221 

132.  Placing  Dirt  Bands  in  Hotbed 226 

133.  Muskmelon  Seedlings  Growing  in  Dirt  Bands  in  Hotbed 226 

134.  Lifting  Melon  Plants  from  Hotbed 226 

135.  "Boat,"  a  Device  Used  in  Tillage  of  Melons 228 

136.  Muskmelon  Vine  Killed  by  Rust 230 

137.  Muskmelon  Vine  Protected  from  Rust  by  Spraying 230 

138.  Kleckley  Sweets  Watermelon 233 

139.  Citron  or  Preserving  Melon 234 

140.  Slicing  Cucumber 235 

141.  Gherkin  Vine  and  Fruit 236 

142.  Bush  Form  of  Summer  Squash 237 

143.  Hubbard  Squash 238 

144.  Perfect  Gem  Squash 239 

145.  Section  of  Winter  Crookneck  Squash 239 

146.  Vegetable  Marrow 240 

147.  Type  of  "Pie"  Pumpkin 241 

148.  Transplanting  Tomatoes 246 

149.  A  Row  of  Staked  Tomatoes 247 

150.  Tomato  Plant  Pruned  to  Single  Stem 248 

151.  Unsprayed  Tomato  Plant  Affected  by  Leaf  Spot 249 

152.  Sprayed  Tomato  Plant — Leaf  Spot  under  Control 249 

153.  Tomato  Plantation  Ruined  by  Fusarium  Wilt 250 

154.  Fruit  of  the  Eggplant 252 

155.  Cross-sections  of  Fruit  Shown  in  Fig.  154 252 

156.  Varieties  of  Peppers 254 

157.  Rows  of  Sweet  Potatoes 255 

158.  "Sweep"  Used  in  Making  Sweet  Potato  Ridges 256 

159.  Device  for  Smoothing  Sweet  Potato  Ridges 256 

160.  Sweet  Potato  Digger 257 

161.  Sweet  Potato  Tubers  Clinging  to  Stem 257 

162.  Plow  Rigged  for  Digging  Sweet  Potatoes 258 

163.  Diagram  of  Farmer's  Vegetable  Garden 266 

164.  Narrow-tooth  Cultivator 269 

165.  Diagram  of  Suburban  Garden 270 

166.  Suggested  Plan  for  Garden  where  Space  is  Limited 273 

167.  Simple  Packing  Shed,  with  Curtain 280 

168.  Convenient  Packing  Shed  for  Melons  and  Tomatoes 280 

169.  Sectional  View  and  Plan  of  Shed  Shown  in  Fig.  168 282 


ILLUSTRATIONS  xui 

170.  Type  of  Cart  Used  in  Transporting  Vegetables  from  Field  to  Shed .  .  .  284 

171.  Boston  Market  Gardener's  Load  of  Vegetable  Boxes 285 

172.  Baskets  of  Melons 286 

173.  Bunch  of  Young  Beets,  as  Marketed 287 

174.  175.  Grades  of  Muskmelons 290,  291 

176.  Properly  Packed  Tomato  Flats 292 

177.  Crates  of  Muskmelons 293 

178.  View  of  "Eastern  Market,"  Detroit,  Michigan 295 

179.  A  Day's  Marketing  from  One  Garden 296 

180.  Growers  Waiting  Their  Turns  to  Load  Melons  for  Shipment 299 

181.  Packing  Shed  for  Cantaloupes  at  Railway  Siding 300 

182.  Loading  Platform  of  Rocky  Ford  Cantaloupe  Growers'  Association.  301 

183.  Outdoor  Cellar  for  Storage  of  Potatoes 307 

184.  Storage  House  for  Sweet  Potatoes 307 

185.  Arrangement  of  Cabbage  for  Winter  Storage 308 

186.  Outdoor  Pit  of  Beets  Opened  up  in  March 309 

187.  Celery  Packed  in  Box  for  Winter  Storage  in  Cellar 310 

188.  Hotbed  of  Head  Lettuce  Approaching  Maturity 313 

189.  Interior  View  of  Large  Range  of  Lettuce  Houses 314 

190.  Grand  Rapids  Lettuce  ready  for  Cutting 316 

191.  Bench  of  Hothouse  Tomatoes,  Showing  Method  of  Training 317 

192.  Map  Indicating  Certain  Vegetable-producing  States 321 

193.  Class  in  Vegetable  Gardening,  University  of  Illinois 325 

194.  Chart  Showing  Relative  Vitamin  Content  of  Vegetables 328 


PRODUCTIVE 
VEGETABLE  GROWING 


CHAPTER  I 

TYPES  OF  VEGETABLE  GROWING 

There  are  two  distinct  types  of  vegetable  growing,  amateur 
and  commercial.  In  amateur  or  home  vegetable  gardening,  the 
primary  object  is  to  supply  the  home  table  with  vegetables  of 
high  quality.  A  large  assortment  and  continuous  supply  are  de- 
sirable. In  commercial  vegetable  growing,  the  primary  object  is 
to  supply  the  demands  of  the  market  in  the  way  that  will  be  most 
remunerative  to  the  grower.  The  assortment  may  be  either  large 
or  small  and  the  supply  either  continuous  or  intermittent.  There 
are  really  three  types  of  commercial  vegetable  growing:  (1)  The 
growing  of  a  general  assortment  of  vegetables  for  local  market, 
(2)  the  growing  of  one  or  a  few  special  crops,  mainly  for  shipment 
to  distant  markets,  and  (3)  the  growing  of  vegetables  for  canning 
or  pickling  factories. 

MARKET   GARDENING 

The  term  "market  gardening"  is  usually  employed  to  designate 
the  growing  of  a  general  assortment  of  vegetables  for  supplying 
a  local  market,  the  term  "local  market"  meaning  a  market  within 
driving  distance  from  the  point  of  production.  If  the  local  market 
is  a  comparatively  small  town,  the  market  garden  in  that  vicinity 
does  not  differ  materially  from  a  properly  planned  home  garden, 
except  that  it  is  larger.  A  general  assortment  of  vegetables  is 
grown,  so  that  vegetables  of  some  kind  may  be  marketed  at  almost 
all  seasons  of  the  year.  Much  of  the  land  produces  only  one  crop 
a  year,  and  none  of  it  more  than  two  crops.  Sometimes  the  land 
is  manured  once  a  year  and  sometimes  less  frequently. 

Where  the  local  market  is  a  large  city,  the  land  available  for 
gardening  purposes  within  convenient  driving  distances  from  the 
market  is  likely  to  be  exceedingly  high  priced,  so  that  very  in- 
tensive methods  of  culture  must  be  practiced  in  order  to  secure 

1 


2  TYPES  OF  VEGETABLE  GROWING 

large  returns  per  acre.  The  intensity  of  the  methods  practiced 
usually  varies  directly  with  the  value  of  the  land  (Fig.  1),  and 
depends  upon  the  size  and  location  of  the  city,  the  distance  of  the 
particular  piece  of  land  from  the  heart  of  the  city,  the  density 
and  character  of  the  population  in  the  immediate  locality,  the 
character  of  the  roads  leading  to  the  market,  and  the  adapta- 
bility of  the  land  for  gardening  purposes.  From  two  to  four  crops 
are  grown  on  the  same  land  each  season.  Very  heavy  and  frequent 
manuring  is  practiced  and  artificial  watering  sometimes  employed. 


Fig.  1. — Market   garden  near   Boston,  on   land  worth   ten  thousand   dollars    per 
acre.  This  land  will  eventually  be  sold  for  building  lots. 

The  growing  of  vegetables  for  local  market  has  certain  ad- 
vantages over  the  culture  of  vegetables  for  shipment  to  distant 
markets.  The  grower  who  can  market  his  product  in  his  immediate 
locality  avoids  the  expense  of  railroad  transportation  and  a  large 
part  of  the  expense  for  packages.  He  is  in  closer  touch  with  the 
market,  and,  except  in  the  case  of  extremely  perishable  goods, 
can  largely  regulate  the  quantity  of  products  which  he  will  market 
upon  a  given  day,  and  make  the  supply  correspond  quite  closely 
with  the  demand  at  that  particular  time.  There  is,  therefore,  less 
fluctuation  in  prices,  and  more  certainty  of  a  fair  profit.    This  is 


TRUCK-GROWING  OR  TRUCK  FARMING  3 

especially  true  of  marketing  in  the  smaller  and  medium-sized 
cities. 

The  growing  of  one  or  a  few  special  crops  is  usually  practiced 
only  where  the  conditions  are  especially  adapted  to  the  production 
of  the  crop  or  crops  in  question.  The  favorable  conditions  may 
be  those  of  soil,  climate,  shipping  facilities,  availability  of  labor 
or  accessibility  of  fertilizer,  or  a  combination  of  two  or  more  of 
these  factors.  Labor  and  manure  can  be  secured  most  abundantly 
in  close  proximity  to  large  cities.  It  is  therefore  not  surprising 
to  find  special  crops,  requiring  heavy  manuring  and  demanding 
a  large  amount  of  cheap  hand  labor,  grown  on  a  large  scale  in  the 
vicinity  of  large  cities,  where  at  certain  seasons  women  and  children 
are  transported  by  the  trainload  from  the  city  to  the  fields  in  the 
morning  and  back  to  the  city  at  night.  Onion  sets  constitute  a 
crop  of  this  character  and  are  very  extensively  grown  near  Chicago 
and  certain  other  large  cities. 

TRUCK-GROWING    OR   TRUCK   FARMING* 

When  vegetables  are  grown  at  so  great  a  distance  from  market 
that  railway  or  water  transportation  is  required  for  reaching  the 
market,  the  industry  is  commonly  referred  to  as  "truck-growing," 
"truck  farming,"  or  "trucking."  It  is  usually  carried  on  where 
land  is  low  priced  as  compared  with  that  on  which  vegetables  are 
grown  within  driving  distance  of  the  large  city  markets.  Less 
intensive  methods  of  culture  are  practiced  and  a  smaller  assort- 
ment of  vegetables  is  grown,  but  the  acreage  devoted  to  a  single 
crop  by  an  individual  grower  is  usually  larger  in  truck-growing 
than  in  market-gardening.  Often  only  one  or  two  truck  crops 
are  grown  in  a  given  locality,  and  these  may  constitute  the  "money 
crops"  in  a  system  of  mixed  farming,  or  in  exceptional  cases  large 
areas  may  be  devoted  to  a  single  crop  by  a  person  who  gives  his 
whole  attention  to  that  one  crop.  The  latter  condition  obtains 
only  in  regions  especially  adapted  to  the  particular  crop  in  question. 

The  extension  of  vegetable  growing  to  a  distance  from  market 
has  been  brought  about  by  the  enormous  increase  in  land  values 
near  cities,  occasioned  by  the  growth  of  the  cities, and  the  demand 
for  products  earlier  in  the  season  than  they  could  be  produced 
under  outdoor  conditions  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  market. 

*  Extract  from  the  author's  article  on  "Truck-Growing''  in  Cyclopedia 
of  American  Agriculture,  Vol.  n,  pp.  653-656.  Printed  by  permission  of  thfl 
MacMillan  Co.,  Publishers,  New  York. 


4  TYPES  OF  VEGETABLE  GROWING 

The  latter  cause  has  resulted  in  the  development  of  early  veg- 
etable grooving  at  the  South  for  shipment  to  northern  markets 
while  the  former  has  resulted  in  the  removal  of  the  growing  of 
staple,  cool-season,  late  crops  to  locations  more  or  less  remote 
from  the  northern  markets  though  perhaps  in  the  same  latitude. 

Considerations  of  soil  and  climate  largely  determine  the  general 
location  of  truck-growing  areas  for  given  crops.  Of  these  the 
climate  is  the  more  important  except  in  the  case  of  a  few  crops 
requiring  special  soil  conditions  for  their  proper  development. 
However,  b}'  no  means  all  localities  adapted  to  the  production 
of  certain  crops  have  become  commercial  centers  for  those  crops. 
The  exact  location  of  truck-growing  areas  within  a  region  adapted 
to  the  production  of  certain  crops  is  determined  by  transportation 
facilities  and  the  inclinations  of  the  inhabitants.  New  shipping 
points  are  continually  being  developed  by  reason  of  the  extension 
of  railroad  lines  to  new  regions,  and  the  enterprise  of  a  few  pro- 
gressive men  in  each  locality. 

It  is  only  at  points  where  a  sufficient  number  of  men  are 
growing  the  same  crop  or  crops  that  are  marketed  at  the  same 
season  to  enable  shipments  to  be  made  in  car  lots,  that  good 
shipping  facilities  and  desirable  freight  rates  can  be  secured.  In 
the  case  of  some  crops,  such  as  watermelons  or  late  cabbage,  the 
individual  grower  can  ship  in  car  lots;  but  with  many  crops,  such 
as  asparagus,  green  peas,  muskmelons  or  tomatoes,  an  individual 
grower  would  usually  be  able  to  furnish  only  a  small  fraction  of  a 
car  in  any  single  shipment.  In  order,  therefore,  to  develop  a  new 
shipping  point,  it  is  necessary  that  the  men  who  wish  to  enter 
the  trucking  business  induce  a  sufficient  number  of  other  men  to 
grow  the  same  crops  to  secure  adequate  shipping  facilities. 

As  an  adjunct  to  general  farming,  truck-growing  is  becoming 
an  important  factor  in  the  agriculture  of  many  localities;  and  it 
is  on  that  basis  that  it  is  destined  to  hold  a  permanent  place 
among  the  activities  of  rural  people. 

In  general,  truck  crops  demand  heavy  manuring  and  very 
thorough  tillage.  A  system  of  rotation  which  includes  a  truck 
crop  every  three  or  four  years  will  usually  result  in  increasing 
rather  than  diminishing  the  productive  capacity  of  the  soil.  In 
a  sandy  region  where  watermelons  thrive  and  winter  wheat  is  the 
staple  grain  crop,  a  rotation  of  wheat,  clover  and  melons  is  highly 
satisfactory;  or  if  corn  also  is  grown,  the  rotation  may  be  extended 
one  year,  and  the  corn  planted  on  the  clover  sod.  In  case  clover 


GROWING  VEGETABLES  FOR  THE  CANNERY  5 

does  not  thrive  in  the  region,  cow  peas  are  sown  immediately  after 
the  wheat  is  harvested,  and  will  leave  the  land  in  ideal  condition 
for  melons.  On  a  clay  soil  in  regions  where  clover  does  not  thrive 
and  wheat  is  not  grown,  but  where  muskmelons  constitute  an 
important  money  crop,  the  following  rotation  has  given  exception- 
ally good  results:  Corn,  cow  peas,  melons,  timothy.  The  mel- 
ons are  heavily  manured,  and  the  thorough  tillage  required  by 
this  crop  leaves  the  land  in  ideal  condition  for  seeding  to  timothy 
immediately  after  the  melon  harvest  (Fig.  2).  Early  tomatoes 
might  be  substituted  for  melons  in  the  same  rotation  with  almost 
as  good  results. 

r mm  v- 


ilons.    An  important  truck  crop  i 


xed  farming. 


GROWING    VEGETABLES    FOR   THE    CANNERY 

The  growing  of  vegetables  for  canning  and  pickling  factories 
is  usually  carried  on  in  regions  especially  adapted  to  the  production 
of  the  crops  in  question.  Factories  are  commonly  located  only 
in  such  regions.  It  is  not  a  mere  coincidence  that  blanched  as- 
paragus is  canned  in  eastern  Long  Island  or  peas  in  Delaware, 
Maryland  and  western  New  York.  Other  vegetables  extensively 
grown  especially  for  canning  or  pickling  are  sweet  corn,  tomatoes, 
string  beans  and  cucumbers.  The  growing  of  these  crops  for  this 
purpose  does  not  differ  from  their  culture  for  marketing  in  the 
fresh  state,  except  that  earliness  is  not  sought,  and  the  methods 


6  TYPES  OF  VEGETABLE  GROWING 

of  culture  are  usually  less  intensive.  The  main  difference  is  in 
the  method  of  marketing.  The  crops  are  usually  grown  under 
contract  at  a  specified  price  per  ton  or  bushel,  agreed  upon  before 
the  crop  is  planted.  There  are  no  fluctuations  in  price  through 
the  season,  no  packages  to  buy,  no  worry  about  delayed  cars  and 
no  freight  bills  to  pay;  so  that,  although  the  factory  price  per 
bushel  or  ton  may  seem  low  as  compared  with  city  market  prices 
early  in  the  season,  the  net  proceeds  from  the  crop  may  be  fully 
as  great. 

HOME   VEGETABLE    GROWING 

As  already  suggested,  a  home  vegetable  garden  is  maintained 
not  for  the  direct  purpose  of  making  money,  but  for  supplying 
the  owner's  table  with  fresh  vegetables.  However,  if  properly 
planned  and  cared  for,  the  home  garden  may  be  made  exceedingly 
profitable  by  reason  of  the  large  amount  of  table  supplies  it  fur- 
nishes. A  home  vegetable  garden  differs  from  a  local  market 
garden  principally  in  size.  It  seldom  consists  of  more  than  one 
acre,  and  may  be  of  any  size  from  this  down  to  a  single  square 
rod  or  even  less.  Its  size  will  depend  to  some  extent  upon  the 
size  of  the  family  whose  table  it  is  to  supply,  but  primarily  upon 
the  amount  of  land  available  for  gardening  purposes.  Three  types 
of  home  vegetable  gardens  may  be  distinguished :  (1)  The  farmer's 
garden,  (2)  the  village  or  suburban  garden,  and  (3)  the  city  garden. 

The  differences  in  the  type  of  gardening  practiced  in  these 
three  sorts  of  gardens  are  due  mainly  to  differences  in  the  size 
of  the  gardens.  On  the  farm,  where  any  amount  of  land  the  owner 
desires  can  be  reserved  for  a  garden,  there  is  no  restriction  on  the 
assortment  of  vegetables  or  the  space  allotted  to  each  sort.  Plant- 
ings are  made  in  long  rows  (Fig.  3),  wide  apart,  and  horse  tillage 
employed  as  much  as  possible.  The  most  distinctive  feature  of  a 
farmer's  garden  should  be  the  reduction  of  hand  labor  to  a  mini- 
mum, for  time  is  more  expensive  to  the  farmer  than  space,  and 
the  main  effort  should  be  to  produce  maximum  crops  at  a  minimum 
expenditure  of  labor,  regardless  of  the  amount  of  space  required. 

The  conditions  to  be  met  in  the  village  or  suburban  home 
garden  are  often  radically  different  from  those  on  the  farm.  Space 
is  likely  to  be  limited  so  that  the  rows  of  vegetables  are  usually 
planted  rather  close  together,  and  hand  methods  of  tillage  em- 
ployed. It  may  be  necessary  to  omit  from  the  suburban  garden 
certain  vegetables  that  require  a  large  amount  of  space. 


HOME  VEGETABLE  GRCNYING 


8  TYPES  OF  VEGETABLE  GROWING 

Gardening  in  a  city  back  yard  is  even  more  intensive  than 
suburban  gardening,  and  is  usually  attended  by  greater  difficulties. 
Space  is  likely  to  be  very  limited,  and  the  soil  often  ill-adapted 
to  gardening,  on  account  of  being  " filling"  composed  principally 
of  clay  subsoil  secured  from  the  excavation  for  the  basement  of 
the  residence.  However,  the  limitations  of  space  are  at  least 
partially  offset  by  an  abundance  of  water  from  the  city  supply, 
and  the  nature  of  the  soil  can  be  radically  changed  by  the  addition 
of  sand  and  humus,  so  that  extremely  intensive  methods  of  gar- 
dening may  be  practiced  and  the  small  area  made  to  yield  an 
abundant  harvest. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  is  the  primary  object  in  home  vegetable  gardening? 

2.  What  is  the  primary  object  in  commercial  vegetable  growing? 

3.  Distinguish  three  types  of  commercial  vegetable  growing. 

4.  Define  "market  gardening."    What  distinct  characteristics  and  advantages 

has  this  type  of  vegetable  growing  as  compared  with  truck  farming? 

5.  Define  "truck  farming."     In  what  respects  does  it  differ  from  market 

gardening? 

6.  What  causes  have  led  to  the  development  of  truck  farming? 

7.  What  factors  determine  the  location  of  truck-growing  areas? 

8.  Suggest  three  rotations  adapted  to  general  or  mixed  farming,  with  one 

truck  crop  in  each. 

9.  Where  are  canning  factories  usually  located? 

10.  What  vegetables  are  commonly  canned?    Pickled? 

11.  What  advantages  has  growing  vegetables  for  the  cannery  over  growing 

them  for  the  general  market? 

12.  Distinguish  three  types  of  home  vegetable  gardens,  and  characterize  each 


CHAPTER  II 

SOIL  AND  LOCATION 

A  few  special  crops,  like  celery  and  watermelons,  demand 
particular  types  of  soil  if  they  are  to  attain  their  highest  develop- 
ment, and  are  grown  extensively  for  general  market  purposes 
principally  in  localities  where  the  type  of  soil  they  demand  can 
be  found  in  abundance.  Thus,  the  great  commercial  watermelon- 
producing  regions  of  the  country  are  located  where  sandy  ridges 
abound,  and  the  most  famous  celery  areas  where  there  are  re- 
claimed peat  or  muck  swamps  (Fig.  4).  Most  vegetable  crops, 
however,  can  be  successfully  grown  on  many  different  types  of 


&0*- 


Fio.  4. — Michigan  celery  field.     Celery  is  one  of  the  few  vegetable  crops  demanding  special 
soil  conditions. 

soil.  It  is  fortunate  that  this  is  the  case,  for  it  makes  possible  the 
growing  of  vegetables  for  home  use  and  for  local  market  in  almost 
every  locality  where  there  is  any  soil  whatever  suitable  for  agri- 
cultural purposes. 

Sandy  Soil. — Although  vegetables  will  grow  on  many  kinds  of 
soil,  where  there  is  chance  for  a  choice  it  is  an  advantage  to  select 
a  somewhat  sandy  soil  for  the  production  of  early  crops.  This  is 
because  such  a  soil  dries  out  earlier  in  the  spring,  and  hence  can 
be  planted  earlier  than  a  heavier  soil.  It  is  also  warmer,  and  there- 
fore hastens  the  early  development  of  the  crops. 


10  SOIL  AND  LOCATION 

Other  advantages  of  a  sandy  soil  for  general  gardening  pur- 
poses are  that  it  is  easily  worked,  responds  readily  to  fertilizer 
treatment,  reaches  workable  condition  within  a  short  time  after 
a  rain,  and  is  not  injured  by  tramping,  as  in  the  harvesting  of 
crops,  when  in  a  wet  condition. 

On  the  other  hand,  a  sandy  soil  has  some  drawbacks.  Crops 
grown  on  such  a  soil  are  likely  to  suffer  in  time  of  drought,  unless 
the  surface  soil  is  underlaid  by  a  retentive  subsoil. 

Soils  of  a  heavier  type  and  more  clayey  nature  are  often  pre- 
ferred for  the  later  crops  in  localities  where  the  midseason  rainfall 
is  likely  to  be  deficient.  However,  unless  the  soils  with  a  large 
amount  of  clay  in  their  composition  are  well  supplied  with  organic 
matter  they  are  likely  to  bake  after  a  rain,  and  to  be  difficult 
to  work.  Much  more  care  is  required  in  working  a  clay  soil 
than  a  sandy  soil  in  vegetable  crops,  for  the  clay  is  likely  to  become 
puddled  if  worked  or  tramped  upon  when  it  is  too  wet.  A  clay 
soil  reaches  workable  condition  slowly  after  a  rain  and  remains 
in  ideal  condition  for  working  only  a  short  time.  Unless  it  is 
worked  during  the  short  interval  when  it  is  neither  too  wet  nor 
too  dry,  extreme  difficulties  are  likely  to  be  encountered  in  manag- 
ing a  heavy  clay  soil. 

A  clay  soil  may  be  improved  for  gardening  purposes  by  the 
incorporation  of  organic  matter  or  humus.  This  may  be  accom- 
plished by  the  application  of  manure  or  the  plowing  under  of 
green  crops.    Such  treatment  makes  the  soil  more  friable. 

Heavy  soils  can  be  brought  into  workable  condition  earlier 
in  the  spring  if  they  are  thoroughly  drained.  Tile  drainage  of  a 
heavy  soil  for  early  gardening  purposes  involves  the  placing  of 
the  drains  much  closer  together  than  would  be  necessary  in  ordi- 
nary farm  drainage.  Often  they  are  placed  as  close  as  two  rods 
apart.  If,  in  addition  to  the  drainage,  the  land  is  thrown  up  into 
ridges  in  the  fall,  by  plowing  in  very  narrow  "lands,"  the  soil 
will  reach  workable  condition  earlier  in  the  spring  than  if  this 
precaution  is  not  taken.  Thus,  it  is  possible,  by  proper  manage- 
ment, to  plant  a  garden  early,  even  on  heavy  soil. 

The  best  location  for  an  early  garden  is  on  a  gentle  southern 
slope.  The  slope  should  be  sufficiently  steep  to  afford  natural 
surface  drainage,  j^et  not  so  steep  as  to  permit  serious  washing 
of  the  soil.  A  southern  slope  affords  the  most  direct  exposure  to 
sunshine.  Such  a  slope  also  is  protected  more  or  less  from  cold 
northern  winds.     All  these  factors  influence  the  earliness  of  the 


QUESTIONS  11 

crops.    For  some  late  crops,  low,  flat  lands  are  especially  desirable, 
since  they  are  usually  rich  and  moist. 

As  already  mentioned,  any  soil  suitable  for  general  agricultural 
purposes  can  be  made  to  grow  vegetables  if  properly  handled. 
Too  much  stress  is  often  laid  upon  the  type  of  soil  necessary  for 
the  production  of  a  given  vegetable.  With  few  exceptions,  the 
common  garden  vegetables  can  be  grown  with  at  least  a  fair 
degree  of  success  on  almost  any  type  of  soil  suited  to  the  produc- 
tion of  agricultural  crops,  provided  the  moisture  supply  is  normal 
and  the  soil  is  properly  handled  in  reference  to  time  and  method 
of  working,  the  incorporation  of  humus,  and  addition  of  plant 
food. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Name  two  vegetable  crops  that  demand  special  soil  conditions. 

2.  Do  most  vegetables  demand  particular  types  of  soil? 

3.  What  advantages  has  a  sandy  soil  for  general  gardening  purposes? 

4.  What  are  the  chief  points  of  weakness  in  a  sandy  soil? 

5.  What  precautions  must  be  taken  in  handling  a  clay  soil? 

6.  How  may  a  clay  soil  be  improved  for  gardening  purposes? 

7.  Describe  an  ideal  location  for  an  early  vegetable  garden. 

8.  What  soils  may  be  used  for  growing  common  vegetables  for  home  use? 

9.  Give  the  proper  conditions  for  their  growth  on  the  less  favorable  soils. 


CHAPTER  III 
FACTORS  INFLUENCING  THE  QUALITY  OF  VEGETABLES  * 

A  number  of  factors  may  influence  the  quality  of  vegetables 
as  they  appear  upon  the  table.  The  efficiency  and  training  of  the 
cook  who  prepares  and  serves  the  vegetables  are  potent  factors 
in  determining  their  palatability  and  wholesomeness.  Cabbage 
cooked  by  the  ordinary  hotel  or  boarding-house  method  is  far 
inferior  in  appearance,  texture,  flavor  and  digestibility  to  the 
same  vegetable  cooked  in  a  proper  manner.  There  is  also  an  art 
in  the  cooking  of  carrots,  parsnips,  cauliflower,  turnips  and  egg- 
plant; and  it  is  probable  that  these  vegetables  would  rise  in  popular 
favor  if  they  were  properly  cooked  by  a  larger  proportion  of  the 
people  who  try  to  serve  them. 

The  freshness  of  vegetables  has  a  direct  bearing  upon  their 
quality,  though  this  factor  has  a  much  more  marked  influence 
in  the  case  of  some  vegetables  than  others.  Certain  vegetables 
lose  moisture  rapidly  after  gathering,  and  unless  precautions  are 
taken  to  keep  them  fresh,  they  soon  become  so  badly  wilted  that 
their  characteristic  crispness  is  largely  destroyed.  Radishes  and 
lettuce  lose  their  distinctive  value  as  salad  materials  if  they  become 
badly  wilted.  Summer  cabbage,  especially  when  used  for  slaw, 
and  string  beans  are  more  acceptable  if  used  before  they  wilt. 

In  the  above-mentioned  vegetables  it  is  chiefly  the  texture 
which  is  affected  by  the  staleness  of  the  product.  In  sweet  corn 
and  green  peas,  however,  there  is  a  marked  deterioration  in  flavor 
if  these  vegetables  are  allowed  to  stand  even  a  few  hours  after 
gathering.  To  be  of  the  finest  possible  flavor,  sweet  corn  should 
be  served  within  an  hour  after  it  leaves  the  stalk. 

Strictly  fresh  vegetables  of  the  most  perishable  kinds  cannot 
readily  be  obtained  on  the  ordinary  market.  This  renders  it 
imperative  for  the  person  who  desires  perishable  vegetables  of 
high  quality  to  grow  them  upon  his  own  grounds.  One  great 
advantage  of  the  home  garden  over  the  grocer's  stall  as  a  source 
of  the  vegetable  supply  lies  in  the  superior  freshness  of  the  product 
from  the  former  source. 

*  Synopsis  of  an  address  given  by  the  author  at  the  Fifty-third  Annual 
Meeting  of  the  Illinois  State  Horticultural  Society,  December  18,  1908. 
12 


INFLUENCE  OF  TEMPERATURE  ON  QUALITY  13 

Relation  of  Maturity  to  Quality. — Another  factor  influencing 
the  quality  of  vegetables  is  the  stage  of  development  or  maturity 
at  which  the  product  is  gathered.  Nearly  all  vegetables  are  in 
their  most  edible  stage  before  reaching  full  maturity,  and  remain 
in  the  most  desirable  condition  for  use  a  comparatively  short  time. 
Market  growers  have  a  tendency  to  allow  certain  crops  to  stand 
too  long  for  the  sake  of  increasing  size,  or  to  gather  too  large  a 
proportion  of  the  crop  at  one  picking,  so  that  specimens  of  several 
degrees  of  ripeness  are  marketed  together,  some  of  which  are  too 
old  and  tough  and  others  too  young  and  watery.  Sweet  corn  and 
green  peas  become  hard  and  undesirable  if  allowed  to  remain 
unpicked  a  few  days  too  long.  String  beans  become  too  "stringy." 
radishes  either  too  woody  or  too  pithy,  while  in  cucumbers  and 
eggplants  the  seeds  become  hard  and  render  the  fruit  undesirable. 
Gathering  at  the,  proper  degree  of  ripeness  has  a  marked  influence 
upon  the  quality  of  vegetables;  and  here  again  the  home  gardener 
has  a  decided  advantage  over  the  person  who  tries  to  purchase 
palatable  vegetables  in  the  market. 

Influence  of  Temperature  on  Quality. — Important  as  are  the 
factors  already  mentioned,  it  is  impossible  to  secure  high  quality 
in  vegetables  by  proper  cooking  or  serving  of  a  freshly  gathered 
product  picked  at  the  right  degree  of  ripeness,  unless  the  vegetables 
in  question  have  been  grown  under  conditions  favorable  to  the 
development  of  a  product  of  high  quality. 

Temperature  has  a  marked  influence  upon  the  quality  of  certain 
vegetables.  It  is  impossible  to  grow  good  radishes,  lettuce,  turnips, 
spinach,  or  cauliflower  at  excessively  high  temperatures.  On  the 
other  hand,  there  are  certain  vegetables  which  require  hot  weather 
to  develop  their  full  quality,  and  which  refuse  to  grow  or  develop 
at  low  temperature.  Watermelons,  muskmelons  and  tomatoes  are 
examples. 

The  moisture  supply  is  another  factor  which  influences  the 
quality  of  vegetables.  Cool-season  crops  having  a  short  period 
of  growth,  especially  those  in  which  the  root,  stem  or  leaves  con- 
stitute the  edible  part,  require  an  abundance  of  moisture  through- 
out their  entire  period  of  growth ;  and  an  ample  supply  is  especially 
important  at  the  time  they  reach  edible  maturity.  A  drought 
setting  in  just  before  radishes  or  lettuce  are  ready  to  use  will  ruin 
their  flavor.  If  deficiency  in  moisture  is  accompanied  by  high 
temperature,  as  it  often  is,  the  influence  on  the  flavor  of  these 
crops  is  still  more  marked  than  when  one  factor  is  acting  alone. 


14  FACTORS  INFLUENCING  QUALITY 

Some  of  the  warm  season  crops,  while  requiring  considerable 
moisture  early  in  the  season  to  promote  a  strong  vegetative  growth, 
develop  a  product  of  the  highest  flavor  and  most  desirable  texture 
if  the  soil  is  comparatively  dry  at  the  time  the  crop  matures. 

High  quality  in  many  vegetables  is  associated  with  rapidity 
of  growth.  This  is  especially  true  of  the  cool  season,  short  season 
crops  of  which  a  vegetative  part  is  the  desired  product.  While 
a  congenial  temperature  and  adequate  supply  of  moisture  are 
favorable  to  a  rapid  growth,  such  growth  is  dependent  primarily 
upon  an  abundant  supply  of  available  plant  food.  Plants  used 
for  their  fruit  and  seed  parts  must  also  make  a  strong  vegetative 
growth  if  they  are  to  bear  a  full  crop  of  high  quality.  Therefore 
they,  too,  must  be  well  fed. 

Tillage  is  the  principal  means  of  retaining  moisture.  It  also 
assists  in  rendering  conditions  favorable  for  the  plant  to  make 
use  of  the  food  which  is  supplied.  A  crop  of  high  quality  can  be 
grown  with  thorough  tillage  better  than  without  it,  and  tillage 
may  therefore  be  considered  as  another  factor  influencing  quality. 

In  certain  crops  the  quality  of  the  produce  may  be  impaired 
by  the  attacks  of  insect  enemies  or  fungous  diseases.  For  example, 
the  quality  of  muskmelons  is  almost  sure  to  be  ruined  if  the  vines 
are  seriously  attacked  by  lice  or  rust.  In  other  crops,  the  quantity 
and  appearance  of  the  product  may  be  more  greatly  influenced 
than  the  quality,  by  reason  of  an  attack  of  insects  or  disease,  but 
in  case  of  an  attack  sufficiently  severe  to  seriously  interfere  with 
the  proper  nutrition  of  the  plant,  there  will  usually  be  also  a 
diminution  in  quality.  Protection  of  a  crop  from  its  enemies 
promotes  the  development  of  high  quality  in  the  product. 

The  Variety  Factor. — While  the  conditions  under  which  a 
crop  is  grown  are  of  prime  importance  in  determining  its  quality, 
there  is  another  factor  which,  if  disregarded,  may  thwart  all 
efforts  at  the  production  of  vegetables  of  high  quality.  This  is 
the  variety  factor.  Varieties  differ  as  much  in  quality  as  they  do 
in  size,  shape,  season  or  color.  The  varieties  of  vegetables  which 
are  usually  offered  on  the  market,  and  of  which  seeds  can  be 
purchased  at  the  grocery  store,  are,  for  the  most  part,  the  so-called 
"standard"  varieties.  Most  of  them  have  been  "standards"  for 
years,  and  are  used  as  market  sorts  by  reason  of  their  market 
qualities  rather  than  their  table  qualities.  The  characteristics  of 
a  variety  most  often  selected  for  market  are  productiveness, 
earliness,  good  appearance,  and  good  shipping  qualities,  rather 


QUESTIONS  15 

than  fine  flavor  and  desirable  texture  for  the  table.  The  varieties 
of  radishes,  peas,  string  beans,  and  corn  most  commonly  grown 
for  market  are  far  inferior  in  quality  to  the  best  modern  sorts.  In 
selecting  varieties  for  the  home  garden  it  is  wise  to  discard  some 
of  the  old  "standard"  market  sorts,  and  choose  in  their  stead 
varieties  known  to  be  capable  of  producing  a  product  of  high 
quality. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Name  four  vegetables  which  deteriorate  rapidly  if  not  used  when  strictly 

fresh. 

2.  What  is  the  most  reliable  source  from  which  to  procure  strictly  fresh 

vegetables? 

3.  What  undesirable  qualities  do  vegetables  develop  if  allowed  to  become 

too  mature  before  they  are  gathered? 

4.  How  does  high  temperature  affect  the  quality  of  radishes,  lettuce,  and 

turnips? 

5.  What  effect  has  drought  on  the  quality  of  radishes? 

6.  How  does  thorough  tillage  influence  the  quality  of  vegetables? 

7.  What  effect  have  melon  lice  on  the  quality  of  muskmelons? 
S.  How  extensively  do  varieties  of  vegetables  differ  in  quality? 

9.  Try  to  find  out  how  many  different  kinds  of  radishes,  tomatoes,  potatoes, 

and  other  vegetables  are  grown  in  your  neighborhood. 
10.  Name  the  varieties  of  these  which  are  grown. 


CHAPTER  IV 
THE  SEED  SUPPLY 

One  of  the  primary  requisites  to  success  in  vegetable  growing 
is  the  use  of  good  seed.  There  are  several  sources  from  which 
seed  may  be  procured.  The  most  usual  source  of  the  seed  supply 
for  planting  the  home  garden  is  the  corner  grocery  store.  Many 
people  neglect  to  purchase  their  garden  seeds  until  the  day  they 
need  them  for  planting.  For  such  people  the  corner  grocery  is  a 
great  accommodation.  There  are  many  gardens  which  would 
never  have  been  planted  except  for  this  ever-present  source  of 
seed  supply.     However,  the  corner  grocery  is  by  no  means  the 


FlG.   5. — Result  of  planting  unreliable  seed:     Four  types  of  tomatoes  from  the  same  packet. 

best  place  to  buy  seeds.  Usually  the  assortment  of  varieties  is 
small,  and  those  which  are  offered  are  the  more  common  sorts. 
A  gardener  with  a  discriminating  taste  for  high  quality  varieties 
usually  cannot  secure  the  seeds  he  wants  at  a  grocery  store.  A 
much  surer  way  of  securing  the  varieties  desired  is  to  order  the 
seeds  by  mail  from  the  catalogue  of  some  reputable  seedsman 
who  makes  a  feature  of  furnishing  seeds  of  high  quality. 

Commercial  vegetable  growers  who  desire  large  quantities  of 
seed  of  some  particular  strain,  often  purchase  their  supplies 
directly  from  a  seed  grower  who  makes  a  specialty  of  producing 
that  particular  kind  of  seed.  Such  seed  growers  are  usually  located 
in  regions  especially  adapted  to  the  production  of  the  seed  in 
question. 
16 


FACTORS  ESSENTIAL  TO  PRODUCTION  17 

Home  Production  of  Seed. — Some  people  try  to  save  their 
own  seeds.  This  can  be  done  without  much  trouble  in  the  case 
of  certain  vegetables,  provided  only  one  variety  of  each  vegetable 
is  grown.  Otherwise  there  is  serious  danger  of  crossing,  resulting 
in  seed  that  will  produce  a  mixture  of  vegetables  of  uncertain 
quality  (Fig.  5) .  Also,  unless  extreme  care  is  taken  in  the  selection 
of  the  seed  plants,  departure  from  the  desired  type  and  deteriora- 
tion in  productiveness  and  quality  are  likely  to  take  place  in  suc- 
ceeding generations.  When  only  a  small  quantity  of  seed  is  needed 
it  is  cheaper  to  buy  than  to  raise  it.  On  the  whole  it  is  usually 
much  more  satisfactory  for  the  home  vegetable  gardener  to  pur- 
chase his  seeds  from  a  reliable  seed  firm  than  to  try  to  grow  them 
himself. 


Fig.  6. — Good  and  poor  types  of  cabbage  of  the  same  variety. 

On  the  other  hand,  commercial  vegetable  growers,  especially 
those  who  make  a  feature  of  some  particular  crop,  often  find  it 
desirable  to  produce  their  own  seed.  This  is  most  likely  to  be 
true  if  the  grower  desires  to  use  a  special  strain  of  seed  that  it  is 
difficult  or  impossible  to  procure  on  the  market.  It  is  not  unusual 
for  a  grower  of  some  special  crop  to  develop  a  strain  of  his  own  that 
is  better  adapted  to  his  conditions  and  his  market  than  any  he 
can  buy.  Under  such  circumstances,  a  grower  can  ill  afford  not 
to  produce  his  own  seed. 

Factors  Essential  to  the  Production  of  Good  Seed. — However, 

no  one  should  attempt  the  production  of  vegetable  seed  without 

a  full  realization  of  certain  features  involved  in  the  producing  of 

reliable  seeds.     To  produce  good  seeds  of  any  vegetable  it  is 

2 


THE  SEED  SUPPLY 


essential  that  the  grbwer  be  located  where  the  conditions  of  soil 
and  climate  are  especially  favorable  for  the  development  of  the 
particular  crop  in  question.     The  grower  must  have  intimate 


Fig.   7. — Sectional  views  of  the  cabbage  heads  shown  in  Fig.  6.     Note  the  solidity  of  the 
head  at  the  right:     a  good  seed  type. 

knowledge  of  all  the  features  that  go  to  make  up  the  most  desirable 
type  of  the  variety  with  which  he  has  to  deal.  This  is  essential 
to  the  proper  selection  of  seed  plants  at  the  start  (Figs.  6  and  7), 
and  the  discarding  of  undesirable  plants  from  the  growing  crop. 


The  result  of  five  years'  selection  for  thickness  of  flesh  in  muskmelons. 


The  pulling  out  of  plants  untrue  to  type  in  a  growing  seed  crop 
is  known  as  "roguing."  All  vegetable  crops  grown  for  seed  should 
be  very  carefully  "rogued."  Almost  any  variety  of  vegetable 
can  be  improved  by  a  careful  selection  of  seed  plants  year  after 


CLEANING  AND  CURING  SEEDS 


19 


20  THE  SEED  SUPPLY 

year  (Fig.  8).  This  is  the  way  special  strains  of  the  different 
varieties  are  developed. 

The  reliability  of  seeds  for  planting  purposes  depends  upon  a 
number  of  factors.  In  the  first  place,  as  above  indicated,  the 
seeds  must  have  been  produced  from  carefully  selected  seed  plants, 
grown  far  enough  away  from  other  varieties  or  undesirable  seed 
plants  of  the  same  variety  to  insure  against  cross  pollination. 
These  seed  plants  should  be  given  careful  attention  and  every 
effort  made  to  promote  their  full  development,  for  a  stunted 
plant  is  likely  to  produce  inferior  seed. 

Cleaning  and  Curing  Seeds. — When  the  seed  is  ripe  it  should 
be  carefully  harvested,  and  threshed  or  otherwise  separated  from 
the  plant.  In  the  case  of  seeds  borne  in  fleshy  fruits,  like  tomatoes 
or  melons,  it  is  necessary  to  wash  the  seeds  from  the  pulp.  Whether 
threshed  or  washed  out,  all  seeds  should  be  spread  out  in  thin 
layers  and  allowed  to  cure  as  soon  as  possible  after  gathering.  After 
the  seed  is  thoroughly  cured  it  may  be  placed  in  sacks  or  other 
receptacles  and  stored  in  a  dry  place  not  accessible  to  mice. 

Seed  growers  and  seedsmen  are  equipped  with  special  machinery 
for  cleaning  and  handling  the  various  kinds  of  seeds.  A  brief 
description  of  the  method  employed  by  an  extensive  grower  of 
tomato  seed  may  be  of  interest  in  this  connection.  The  freshly 
picked  fruits  from  which  seed  is  to  be  saved  are  run  through  a 
grinder  somewhat  similar  to  a  cider  mill.  The  ground  pulp  passes 
into  a  revolving  drum  which  takes  out  the  coarsest  parts  (Fig.  9). 
The  seeds,  juice  and  fine  pulp  go  through  the  drum  and  are  caught 
in  a  barrel.  This  material  is  allowed  to  remain  in  the  barrel  to 
ferment  for  forty-eight  hours.  Except  for  the  fermentation,  it 
would  be  almost  impossible  to  separate  the  seeds  from  the  gelat- 
inous pulp  surrounding  them.  The  fermenting  mass  is  put  on 
a  sieve  mounted  in  a  water  tank  in  such  a  way  that  it  can  be 
covered  with  water  to  a  depth  of  a  foot  or  more,  and  also  be  at 
least  a  foot  from  the  bottom  of  the  tank.  After  the  mass  of  seeds 
and  pulp  is  put  on  the  sieve,  water  is  turned  into  the  tank  and 
kept  running,  while  the  seeds  and  pulp  are  rubbed  on  the  sieve 
with  a  hoe.  The  seeds  go  through  the  sieve  while  most  of  the 
pulp  floats  along  the  tank  to  a  place  where  it  flows  out  with  the 
water.  However,  there  is  still  some  pulp  with  the  seeds,  so  that 
further  washing  is  necessary.  The  seeds  are  removed  from  the 
tank  and  placed  in  a  half-barrel  or  vat.  Here  they  are  washed 
five  times,  the  seeds  being  allowed  to  settle  and  the  water  being 


THE  VITALITY  OF  SEEDS 


21 


poured  off  after  each  washing.  The  seeds  are  then  put  into  a 
hand  cider  press  and  much  surplus  water  squeezed  out,  after 
which  they  are  spread  out  on  sheets  and  allowed  to  dry  in  the 
sun  for  about  three  days.  When  thoroughly  dry  they  are  screened 
and  gone  over  by  hand  for  the  removal  of  any  remaining  trash. 
The  seeds  are  then  put  in  sacks  and  hung  up  where  the  air  can 
circulate  through  them. 

Seedsmen's  Trial  Grounds. — The  most  progressive  seedsmen 
maintain  extensive  trial  grounds  (Fig.  10)  for  the  testing  of  new 


varieties,  and  also  for  determining  the  purity  of  different  stocks 
of  the  standard  varieties.  Such  tests  are  of  material  assistance  to 
seedsmen  in  supplying  their  customers  with  reliable  seeds,  for  only 
the  purest  stocks  are  used  for  the  production  of  a  new  seed  crop. 

THE   VITALITY   OF   SEEDS 

Germination  Tests. — If  conditions  are  unfavorable  while  the 
seed  crop  is  growing,  or  if  the  seeds  are  not  properly  cured,  or  if 
they  are  not  stored  under  proper  conditions,  or  if  they  are  kept 


22  THE  SEED  SUPPLY 

too  long  before  sowing,  they  may  fail  to  grow  when  planted,  or 
so  large  a  percentage  of  them  fail  to  grow  that  the  stand  will  be 
poor.  The  only  way  to  be  absolutely  certain  that  any  given  lot 
of  seeds  will  grow  is  to  make  a  germination  test.  In  order  to  be 
sure  of  sending  out  reliable  seeds,  it  is  the  practice  of  seedsmen 
nowadays  to  test  each  lot  of  seeds  before  putting  them  up  for  the 
trade. 

One  of  the  best  ways  of  making  a  germination  test  is  to  count 
out  100  seeds  and  plant  them  in  the  soil  of  a  greenhouse  bench 
or  a  hotbed.  By  counting  the  seedlings  that  appear  the  percentage 
of  germination  can  be  determined.  Other  ways  of  making  ger- 
mination tests  are  to  place  the  seeds  in  a  plate  of  moist  sand  cov- 
ered by  another  plate,  or  between  two  sheets  of  moist  blotting 
paper.  In  all  germination  tests  the  medium  surrounding  the  seeds 
must  be  kept  moist  and  warm  until  the  test  is  over.  A  person 
who  grows  his  own  seeds  should  test  them  before  planting. 

Some  seeds  normally  show  a  much  lower  percentage  of  germi- 
nation than  others.  The  following  standards  of  germination  have 
been  adopted  by  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture, 
and  any  samples  that  equal  or  exceed  these  standards  may  be 
considered  as  satisfactory  for  planting,  so  far  as  germination  is 
concerned. 

Table  I. — Standards  of  Germination  for  Vegetable  Seeds 

Asparagus 80-85  Okra 80-85 

Bean 90-95  Onion 80-85 

Beet 150*  Parsley 70-75 

Cabbage 90-95  Parsnip 70-75 

Carrot SO-85  Pea 93-98 

Cauliflower SO-85  Pepper 80-85 

Celery 60-65  Pumpkin 85-90 

Corn,  Sweet 85-90  Radish 90-95 


85-90  Salsify 75-80 

Cucumber S5-90  Spinach 80-85 

Eggplant 75-80  Squash 85-90 

Lettuce 85-90  Tomato 85-90 

Melon 85-90  Turnip 90-95 

Mustard 90-95 

Longevity  of  Vegetable  Seeds. — Some  kinds  of  seeds  normally 
retain  their  vitality  much  longer  than  others,  so  that  old  seed  of 
some  sorts  may  be  perfectly  reliable,  while  seeds  of  the  same  age 

*  The  beet  "seed  "  is  really  a  fruit,  and  usually  contains  more  than  one  seed. 


THE  VITALITY  OF  SEEDS  23 

of  other  kinds  may  have  entirely  lost  their  power  to  germin- 
ate. While  the  length  of  time  a  given  kind  of  seed  will  retain 
its  vitality  varies  considerably  and  depends  largely  upon  the 
original  strength  of  the  seed  and  the  conditions  under  which 
it  has  been  kept,  the  approximate  lengths  of  time  that 
the  various  kinds  of  garden  seeds  may  reasonably  be  ex- 
pected to  retain  their  germinative  power  are  as  indicated  in 
Table  II. 


Table  II. — Length  of  Time  Seeds  May  be  Expected  to  Retain  their  Vitality 
Years  Years 

Asparagus 5  Mustard 4 

Bean 3  Okra 5 

Beet 6  Onion 2 

Cabbage 5  Parsley 3 

Carrot 4  Parsnip 2 

Cauliflower 5  Pea 3 

Pepper 4 

Pumpkin 5 

Radish 5 

Rhubarb 3 

Salsify 2 

Spinach 5 

Squash 5 

Tomato 4 

Turnip 5 

Watermelon 5 


8 

2 

5 

10 

6 

10 

Kale 

5 

5 

3 

.     5 

Muskmelon 

5 

Old  seed  should  always  be  tested  a  short  time  before  the 
planting  season,  and  if  it  does  not  show  strong  germinative 
power  it  should  be  discarded  and  a  fresh  lot  procured.  If 
only  a  small  quantity  of  seed  is  needed,  and  a  person  does 
not  wish  to  go  to  the  trouble  of  testing  the  old  seed  he 
may  have  on  hand,  it  is  wiser  to  procure  a  fresh  supply 
each  year  than  to  run  the  risk  of  crop  failure  due  to  the  use 
of  seed  of  low  vitality;  for  seed  may  deteriorate  much  more 
rapidly  than  indicated  in  the  preceding  table  if  the  condi- 
tions under  which  it  is  kept  are  unfavorable.  The  cost  of 
a  supply  of  fresh  seed  is  insignificant  as  compared  with  the  value 
of  the  crop,  and  the  first  essential  in  the  production  of  any  crop 
is  good,  reliable  seed. 


24  THE  SEED  SUPPLY 

In  time  of  war,  it  may  be  necessary  to  depart  from  the  usual 
practices  in  reference  to  many  things.  This  is  true  in  regard  to 
the  saving  of  seed  in  home  gardens.  While  under  ordinary  condi- 
tions, it  is  usually  preferable  for  home  gardeners  to  purchase  all 
their  seeds  rather  than  attempt  to  save  them  from  their  own  gar- 
dens, the  situation  in  1918  warrants  the  saving  of  many  kinds  of 
vegetable  seed  by  home  gardeners  for  their  own  planting  the  fol- 
lowing year.  Regarding  the  seed  situation  in  America,  the  follow- 
ing statements  were  made  in  a  circular  issued  by  the  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture  in  the  summer  of  1917: 

"Under  normal  conditions  of  commerce,  considerable  quantities 
of  vegetable  seed  are  imported  by  American  seedsmen  from  Europe. 
Since  the  beginning  of  the  European  war  these  importations  have 
decreased,  until  at  the  present  time,  they  are  relatively  small. 
Furthermore,  America  has  been  called  upon  to  furnish  certain 
vegetable  seeds  to  Europe,  and  this  has  increased  the  tendency 
to  deplete  the  stocks  available  for  our  own  use.  In  view  of  these 
facts,  it  is  believed  that  the  supply  of  vegetable  seed  in  this  country 
should  be  conserved  and  augmented  to  the  fullest  extent  possible. 

"While  the  practice  of  saving  seed  in  the  home  garden  can  not 
be  generally  recommended  because  of  the  difficulty  in  keeping 
stocks  pure,  it  is  quite  feasible  to  save  seed  of  many  vegetables 
for  one  or  two  seasons.  *  *  *  If  this  is  done  it  will  assist  in  the 
return  of  normal  conditions,  not  only  in  the  supply  of  vegetable 
seed,  but  also  in  the  price  to  the  gardener." 

QUESTIONS 

1.  From  what  different  sources  may  vegetable  seeds  be  procured? 

2.  What  difficulties  is  a  gardener  likely  to  encounter  when  he  attempts  to 

grow  his  own  seeds? 

3.  Under  what  circumstances  should  a  commercial  vegetable  grower  produce 

his  own  seeds? 

4.  Give  directions  for  the  selection  of  seed  plants. 

5.  What  is  "roguing"? 

6.  Describe  the  process  of  cleaning  tomato  seed. 

7.  Why  do  seedsmen  maintain  trial  grounds? 

8.  What  factors  may  affect  the  vitality  of  seeds? 

9.  Describe  the  process  of  making  a  germination  test. 

10.  What  percentage  of  germination  can  reasonably  be  expected  in  most 

vegetable  seeds? 

11.  How  long  may  vegetable  seeds  of  different  kinds  be  expected  to  retain 

their  vitality? 

12.  Is  it  safe  to  plant  old  s-eds  without  first  making  a  germination  test? 

13.  What  is  the  seed  supply  for  the  chief  market  garden  crops  of  your  locality? 


CHAPTER  V 
THE  PLANT  FOOD  SUPPLY 

In  order  that  maximum  crops  of  vegetables  may  be  produced 
it  is  essential  that  the  soil  be  abundantly  supplied  with  plant 
food  in  a  readily  available  form.  Much  heavier  applications  of 
fertilizing  materials  are  needed  for  the  production  of  vegetables 
than  for  the  growing  of  the  ordinary  farm  crops.  Since,  in  many 
vegetables,  the  quality  as  well  as  the  quantity  of  the  product  is 
greatly  influenced  by  the  amount  of  plant  food  available,  it  is 
especially  important  that  the  supply  be  ample. 

Elements  of  Plant  Food. — Although  it  is  generally  recognized 
that  there  are  at  least  ten  elements  of  plant  food  essential  to  the 
development  of  any  crop,  all  but  three  can  usually  be  secured  by 
the  plant  from  the  soil,  air,  and  water  in  sufficient  amounts  for 
the  production  of  maximum  crops.  These  three  elements  (which 
are  present  in  all  soils,  but  often  in  insufficient  quantities  in  an 
available  form)  are  nitrogen,  phosphorus  and  potassium.  If  one 
or  more  of  these  elements  are  deficient  the  productive  capacity  of 
the  land  is  thereby  diminished.  The  aim  of  the  vegetable  grower 
in  fertilizing  land  is  to  supply  these  elements  in  the  right  propor- 
tions for  the  development  of  maximum  crops  of  the  vegetables 
in  question.  Different  soils  and  different  crops  need  these  ele- 
ments in  different  proportions.    (See  Table  VI,  p.  328.) 

Sources  of  Plant  Food. — Plant  food  for  the  growing  of  vege- 
table crops  may  be  secured  from  a  number  of  different  sources. 
Only  a  small  part  of  the  plant  food  present  in  an  untreated  soil 
is  available  to  the  plants  at  any  given  time.  Judicious  tillage  and 
the  incorporation  of  organic  matter  in  the  soil  will  render  available 
part  of  the  plant  food  that  would  otherwise  remain  in  an  insoluble 
form  and  hence  of  no  immediate  use  to  the  plants. 

However,  in  vegetable  gardening,  tillage  alone  is  usually  in- 
adequate to  render  sufficient  plant  food  available  to  the  plants 
for  the  production  of  profitable  crops.  Therefore,  direct  applica- 
tions of  plant  food  must  be  made.  The  chief  sources  of  plant 
food  that  can  be  employed  in  vegetable  growing  are  animal  ma- 
nures, green  manures  and  commercial  fertilizers. 

25 


26  THE  PLANT  FOOD  SUPPLY 

ANIMAL  MANURES 

Animal  manures  are  especially  valuable  in  vegetable  garden- 
ing, for  in  addition  to  the  plant  food  they  contain  they  supply 
a  large  amount  of  organic  matter  to  the  soil,  which,  as  indicated 
above,  assists  in  the  liberation  of  plant  food  already  present  in 
the  soil.  This  is  accomplished  by  means  of  the  solvent  effect  of 
the  organic  acids  which  are  formed  during  the  decomposition  of 
the  manure. 

Animal  manures  differ  considerably  in  the  amount  of  plant 
food  they  contain.  Their  composition  depends  chiefly  upon  the 
kind  of  manure  (whether  produced  by  horses,  cattle,  sheep,  swine 
or  poultry),  the  amount  of  litter  it  contains,  and  the  conditions 
under  which  it  has  been  kept.  Manure  that  has  been  allowed  to 
leach  or  to  become  overheated  has  usually  lost  much  of  its  plant 
food.  However,  for  vegetable  gardening  purposes,  the  mechanical 
condition  of  manure  may  be  of  more  importance  than  its  plant 
food  content.  Part  of  the  plant  food  may  be  sacrificed  in  order 
that  the  remainder  may  be  rendered  immediately  available  to  the 
plants.  "Well-rotted  manure"  is  better  adapted  for  use  on  many 
garden  crops  than  is  fresh  manure;  yet  considerable  plant  food  is 
usually  lost  during  the  process  of  rotting. 

Compost. — Very  fine,  thoroughly-rotted  manure  or  other 
organic  matter  is  known  as  "compost."  It  is  prepared  by  piling 
up  the  manure  or  other  material  in  long,  low  piles  six  or  eight  feet 
wide  and  two  to  four  feet  high  (Fig.  11).  This  is  done  from  six 
months  to  a  year  before  the  compost  will  be  needed  for  use.  The 
sides  of  the  pile  are  made  as  nearly  perpendicular  as  possible 
and  the  top  is  flattened  so  that  rains  will  soak  in  instead  of  run- 
ning off.  If  the  weather  is  dry,  water  may  be  applied.  Sometimes 
the  pile  is  made  of  alternate  layers  of  earth,  sod  or  muck,  and 
manure.  In  this  case  there  is  less  loss  of  fertility  from  the  manure. 
A  few  weeks  before  the  compost  is  to  be  used,  the  pile  is  cut  down 
and  the  material  repeatedly  turned  and  mixed  until  the  manure 
is  thoroughly  decomposed  and  the  entire  mass  is  of  fine  texture. 
Formerly  this  work  was  done  by  hand  with  a  fork  or  spade  and 
entailed  a  large  amount  of  labor.  Now  some  of  the  most  progres- 
sive gardeners  do  all  this  turning  of  the  compost  with  a  disk  and 
plow.  The  pile  is  worked  over  three  or  four  times  at  intervals  of 
one  or  two  weeks.  Compost  is  especially  desirable  for  use  in  seed 
beds,  melon  hills,  for  top  dressing  a  growing  crop,  or  for  any 
other  purpose  where  very  quick  action  of  the  plant  food  is  desired. 


GREEN  MANURES 


27 


Animal  manures,  whether  composted  or  not,  form  a  better 
balanced  fertilizer  for  most  vegetables  than  they  do  for  general 
farm  crops,  especially  the  cereal  grains.  This  is  because  of  their 
relatively  high  content  of  nitrogen  and  potassium  (especially  the 
former)  as  compared  with  phosphorus.  Vegetables,  especially 
those  of  which  a  vegetative  part  (root,  stem  or  leaf)  constitutes 


vlmnShK    m 


Fiq.   11. — Compost   pilo   being   mad 


llowing    May. 


the  edible  product,  demand  nitrogen  in  enormous  quantities,  and 
are  relatively  light  in  their  demands  for  phosphorus. 


GREEN   MANURES 

Green,  growing  plants  of  any  kind,  that  are  plowed  under 
instead  of  being  harvested  or  removed  from  the  soil,  may  be 
considered  as  "green  manure."  Upon  their  decomposition  the 
plant  food  they  contain  becomes  available  for  other  plants,  and 
also  during  the  process  of  their  decomposition  organic  acids  are 
formed  which  help  to  dissolve  plant  food  already  present  in  the 
soil  and  make  it  available  to  the  succeeding  crop.    The  indirect 


28 


THE  PLANT  FOOD  SUPPLY 


effect  of  green  manures  upon  plant  food  already  present  in  the 
soil  is  thus  similar  to  that  of  animal  manures. 

Although  a  crop  of  weeds  growing  on  idle  land  may  be  made 
to  serve  as  green  manure  when  plowed  under,  vegetable  growers 
usually  cannot  afford  to  let  land  be  idle  and  depend  upon  nature 
to  furnish  the  plants  for  the  green  manure.  Usually  some  crop 
is  used  for  green  manuring  that  will  make  sufficient  growth  for 
that  purpose  after  the  regular  crop  of  vegetables  has  been  har- 
vested and  before  it  is  necessary  to  prepare  the  land  for  the  next 
crop.     Rye  is  a  good  crop  for  green  manuring  because  it  can  be 


^*, 


Fig.   12. — Heavy  growth  of  cow  peaa  to  be  plowed  under  for  green 


sown  at  any  time  land  is  cleared  of  vegetable  crops  from  August 
1  to  October  15  in  temperate  climates,  and  will  live  through  winter 
and  make  a  strong  growth  in  spring  before  time  for  planting  any 
but  the  very  earliest  crops.  If  sown  as  early  as  August  15  it  may 
be  plowed  under  in  the  fall  instead  of  spring,  and  thus  not  delay 
the  planting  of  even  the  earliest  crops. 

Plants  for  Green  Manuring.- — Weeds  and  rye  add  no  plant 
food  to  soils.  They  merely  give  back  to  the  soil  the  food  they  have 
taken  from  it  during  their  growth,  and  also  in  the  process  of  their 
decomposition  help  liberate  some  of  the  mineral  elements  of  the 
soil  and  make  them  available  to  other  plants.    There  is,  however, 


GREEN  MANURES  29 

a  group  of  plants  that  not  only  perform  these  two  functions,  but 
are  able,  through  the  aid  of  bacteria  working  on  their  roots,  to 
secure  nitrogen  from  the  air  and  add  it  to  the  soil.  This  group  of 
plants,  known  as  legumes,  includes  clover,  alfalfa,  cow  peas  (Fig. 
12),  soy  beans,  vetch,  and  others. 

One  of  the  best  of  these  plants  for  green  manuring  in  connection 
with  vegetable  growing  is  hairy  vetch.  It  can  be  sown  from  July 
15  to  September  15,  and  will  grow  until  the  ground  freezes  in 


Fig.   13. — Four-horse  load  of  manure  near  Boston. 

fall.  It  lives  over  winter  and  resumes  growth  in  spring.  As  in  the 
case  of  rye,  early  sowings  may  be  plowed  under  in  the  fall  or  later 
sowings  in  the  spring. 

In  the  South,  cow  peas  and  soy  beans  may  be  grown  as  green 
manuring  crops  in  the  summer,  to  prepare  the  land  for  growing 
vegetables  in  the  fall,  winter  or  early  spring.  In  some  forms  of 
truck-growing  where  the  vegetable  crop  occupies  the  land  only 
one  season  in  a  three-  to  six-year  rotation,  clover  or  alfalfa  pre- 
ceding the  vegetables  serves  the  purpose  of  a  green  manuring  crop 
for  the  vegetables.  If  a  heavy  growth  of  clover  can  be  plowed 
under,  rather  than  merely  the  sod,  it  is  usually  a  decided  advantage. 


30  THE  PLANT  FOOD  SUPPLY 

Conditions  for  Using  Green  Manure. — Green  manuring  can 
be  employed  more  advantageously  under  the  less  intensive  methods 
of  vegetable  growing,  such  as  truck  farming,  than  in  connection 
with  market  gardening  proper.  It  is  the  cheapest  method  of 
manuring  on  low-priced  land.  At  a  distance  from  large  cities, 
where  stable  manure  is  difficult  to  obtain,  it  furnishes  the  most 
available  means  for  maintaining  the  soil  in  proper  condition  for 
vegetable  production.  However,  near  large  cities,  on  high-priced 
land  that  is  kept  in  vegetable  crops  from  early  spring  till  late  fall, 
there  is  no  time  to  grow  green  manuring  crops.  It  is  cheaper  to 
employ  the  time  of  teams  to  haul  stable  manure  from  the  city  than 
to  employ  the  time  of  the  land  in  growing  green  manures  (Fig.  13). 

Green  manures  alone  cannot  be  depended  upon  to  produce  as 
good  results  as  animal  manures,  for  they  do  not  add  to  the  actual 
supply  of  phosphorus  and  potassium  in  the  soil,  and  unless  they 
are  legumes  they  do  not  add  to  the  nitrogen  supply.  So  far  as 
the  plant  food  supply  is  concerned,  they  merely  help  make  avail- 
able to  the  plants  the  plant  food  already  present  in  the  soil. 

COMMERCIAL    FERTILIZERS 

Commercial  fertilizers  are  concentrated  forms  of  plant  food 
that  can  be  purchased  in  the  market.  They  may  be  either  com- 
plete or  incomplete  fertilizers.  A  complete  fertilizer  is  one  which 
contains  all  three  of  the  essential  elements  of  plant  food:  Nitro- 
gen, phosphorus  and  potassium.  An  incomplete  fertilizer  is  one 
which  contains  only  one  or  two  of  these  three  elements. 

Commercial  fertilizers  differ  widely  in  the  amount  of  plant 
food  they  contain.  They  are  therefore  usually  sold  on  the  basis 
of  a  guaranteed  analysis  specifying  the  percentage  they  contain 
of  each  element  of  plant  food.  Different  fertilizers  are  manu- 
factured to  meet  the  demands  of  different  crops  and  different 
soils.  The  separate  ingredients  from  which  complete  commercial 
fertilizers  are  made  are  usually  cheaper  than  the  complete  mix- 
tures in  relation  to  their  plant  food  content.  It  is  therefore  more 
economical  for  a  gardener  to  purchase  the  separate  ingredients 
and  mix  his  own  fertilizer  than  to  buy  the  ordinary  commercial 
brands  of  ready-mixed  fertilizers.  He  can  also  make  a  fertilizer 
to  meet  his  own  specific  needs. 

Sources  of  Nitrogen. — Some  of  the  leading  commercial  forms 
in  which  nitrogen  can  be  bought  are  nitrate  of  soda,  sulfate 
of  ammonia,  dried  blood,  castor  pomace,  cotton  seed  meal. 


COMMERCIAL  FERTILIZERS  31 

Phosphorus  may  be  bought  in  rock  phosphate,  or  bone  meal. 
Either  may  be  bought  in  the  raw  or  in  the  "treated"  form.  Rock 
phosphate  or  bone  that  has  been  treated  with  acid  contains  its 
phosphorus  in  a  more  quickly  available  form  than  the  raw  material, 
but  its  continued  use  is  likely  to  have  an  undesirable  effect  upon 
the  soil.  Steamed  bone  meal  is  an  especially  desirable  form  in 
which  to  apply  phosphorus  for  vegetable  crops.  It  acts  quickly 
and  does  not  injure  the  land. 

Sources  of  Potassium. — The  principal  commercial  sources  of 
potassium  are  muriate  of  potash,  sulfate  of  potash  and  unleached 
hard-wood  ashes.  Where  ashes  can  be  procured,  they  constitute 
one  of  the  best  sources  of  potassium.  They  act  quickly,  and  do 
not  injure  the  plant  or  the  soil.    The  percentage  of  potassium  they 


Fig.   14. — Manure  spreader  in  operation. 

contain  is  rather  low,  so  that  they  may  be  used  much  more  freely 
than  either  muriate  or  sulfate  of  potash.  Sulfate  of  potash  is 
considered  more  desirable  than  the  muriate  for  certain  crops.  Pota- 
toes, for  example,  are  claimed  to  be  of  better  quality  when  fertil- 
ized with  the  sulfate  rather  than  the  muriate  of  potash. 

Purchasing  Fertilizers. — Commercial  fertilizers  can  be  bought 
by  the  ton  or  the  carload  at  any  time  of  the  year.  They  are  concen- 
trated, so  that  enough  plant  food  for  ten  acres  of  ground  can  be 
stored  in  a  small  space.  They  are  in  condition  to  apply  at  any  time, 
and  modern  machinery  makes  their  application  a  simple  matter. 
(For  composition  of  fertilizing  materials,  see  Table  VII,  p.  328.) 

Effects  of  Commercial  Fertilizers. — So  far  as  plant  food  is 
concerned,  they  furnish  the  same  elements  as  are  contained  in 
animal  manures.  Yet  their  continued  use,  to  the  exclusion  of 
animal  manures  and  green  manures,  will  lead  to  disastrous  results. 


32  THE  PLANT  FOOD  SUPPLY 

If  commercial  fertilizers  are  used  exclusively  the  soil  becomes 
deficient  in  organic  matter,  and  therefore  loses  its  friable  texture 
and  its  ability  to  resist  drought.  Commercial  fertilizers  are  often 
valuable  to  supplement,  but  never  to  supplant,  animal  and  green 
manures.  If  one  form  of  fertilizer  alone  must  be  depended  upon 
in  the  growing  of  vegetables,  that  form  should  be  stable  or  barn- 
yard manure. 

TIME   AND   METHOD    OF   APPLICATION 

For  early  spring  crops  or  when  coarse  manure  is  to  be  used, 
even  for  a  late  crop,  it  is  advisable  to  apply  the  manure  and  plow 


l:.  "'&   ' :  ■  r   •    ">_ 

Fig.   15.— Applying  manure  to  melon  hills. 

it  under  in  the  fall.  This  gives  it  a  chance  to  decay  and  become 
incorporated  with  the  soil  by  the  time  the  plants  are  started  in 
the  spring.  Fine,  rotted  manure  may  be  applied  just  before 
plowing  immediately  preceding  the  planting  of  any  crop,  whether 
the  season  is  spring,  summer,  or  autumn.  It  may  also  be  applied 
as  a  top  dressing  after  plowing  or  even  after  planting,  under  cer- 
tain conditions;  but  its  application  previous  to  plowing  is  usually 
the  more  satisfactory  method  (Fig.  14). 

Commercial  fertilizers  are  usually  applied  after  plowing.  They 
may  be  sown  broadcast  and  then  thoroughly  mixed  with  the  soil 
by  repeated  disking  and  harrowing,  or  they  may  be  drilled  in  with 
a  fertilizer  attachment  on  the  seed  drill  at  the  time  the  crop  is 


QUANTITIES  OF  MANURE  AND  FERTILIZER  TO  USE      33 

planted.  Quick-acting  fertilizers,  like  nitrate  of  soda  and  wood 
ashes,  are  more  often  applied  as  top  dressings  to  the  growing  crop. 
They  are  either  drilled  in,  or  strewn  on  the  surface  of  the  ground 
and  cultivated  in. 

In  the  case  of  crops  planted  in  hills  far  apart,  such  as  melons, 
squashes  and  Lima  beans,  it  is  often  the  practice  to  apply  manure 
or  fertilizer  to  the  hills  rather  than  broadcast,  or  even  in  addition 
to  a  broadcast  application  (Fig.  15).  This  is  for  the  purpose  of 
giving  the  plants  a  quick  start;  and  only  thoroughly  rotted  manure 
or  readily  available  fertilizer  should  be  used. 


Fig.   16. — Making  heavy  application  of  manure  for  fall  crop  of  spinach. 
QUANTITIES   OF   MANURE   AND    FERTILIZER   TO    USE 

Fertilizing  materials  are  used  in  much  larger  quantities  per 
acre  in  vegetable  growing  than  in  general  farming.  Forty  tons 
of  stable  manure  per  acre  per  year  is  a  very  moderate  application 
for  the  production  of  certain  kinds  of  vegetables;  and  commercial 
fertilizers  are  sometimes  used  at  the  rate  of  1000  to  1500  pounds 
per  acre.  The  quantity  that  will  be  most  profitable  in  a  given  case 
will  depend  upon  the  nature  and  condition  of  the  soil  and  the  par- 
ticular crop  in  question  (Fig.  16).  Many  vegetable  crops  yield  a 
3 


34  THE  PLANT  FOOD  SUPPLY 

product  of  very  high  value  per  acre,  and  any  material  increase 
in  yield  or  quality  that  can  be  brought  about  by  additional  appli- 
cations of  plant  food  is  usually  attended  with  corresponding  profit. 
Of  course,  there  is  a  limit  beyond  which  it  is  not  profitable  or 
expedient  to  go,  but  that  limit  is  seldom  reached  if  intelligence  is 
used  in  the  selection  of  the  forms  of  plant  food  that  are  to  be  applied 
and  the  method  and  time  of  their  application. 

An  additional  reason  for  applying  much  larger  quantities  of 
fertilizing  materials  in  the  growing  of  vegetables  than  in  the  pro- 
duction of  ordinary  farm  crops,  is  that,  in  the  case  of  many  vege- 
table crops,  the  plants  occupy  the  land  a  much  shorter  time  than 
do  farm  crops,  and  must  be  liberally  supplied  with  available  plant 
food  in  order  to  make  the  proper  development  in  the  limited 
amount  of  time.  Furthermore,  much  of  the  growth  of  early  spring 
crops  must  be  made  at  a  time  when  the  soil  is  still  cool  and  con- 
ditions are  unfavorable  for  the  action  of  the  agencies  which  assist 
in  making  available  to  the  plants  the  plant  food  already  present 
in  the  soil. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  three  elements  of  plant  food  is  it  usually  necessary  to  apply  to 

soils? 

2.  What  are  the  three  chief  sources  of  plant  food  that  can  be  employed  in 

vegetable  growing? 

3.  What  valuable  material,  aside  from  plant  food,  do  animal  manures  add 

to  the  soil? 

4.  Upon  what  factors  does  the  plant  food  content  of  animal  manures  depend? 

5.  What  is  "compost"?    How  is  it  made?    What  are  its  special  uses? 

6.  What  are  "green  manures"? 

7.  Discuss  the  relative  merits  of   different  crops  for  green  manuring  under 

specified  conditions. 

8.  Under  what  circumstances  is  green  manuring  preferable  to  the  use  of 

animal  manures,  and  vice  versa"? 

9.  What  is  a  "complete  fertilizer"?    An  "incomplete  fertilizer"? 

10.  What  are  the  advantages  of  home  mixing  of  commercial  fertilizers? 

11.  What  are  some  of  the  leading  commercial  sources  of  nitrogen?    Of  phos- 

phorus?   Of  potassium? 

12.  What  dangers  attend  the  continued  use  of  commercial  fertilizers  as  the 

sole  source  of  plant  food? 

13.  What  circumstances  determine  the  time  and  method  of  application  of 

manures  and  fertilizers? 

14.  How  much  manure  per  acre  can  profitably  be  used  for  the  production 

of  vegetable  crops? 

15.  What  forms  of  fertilizer  are  used  in  market  gardening  in  your  section? 


CHAPTER  VI 
THE  MOISTURE  SUPPLY 

The  mere  presence  of  an  abundance  of  plant  food  in  the  soil 
will  not  result  in  bountiful  yields  of  vegetables.  In  order  that 
plants  may  use  the  food  it  must  be  in  solution;  and  in  order  that 
it  may  be  in  solution,  moisture  must  be  present  in  the  soil.  Further- 
more, the  plant  food  must  be  in  very  dilute  solution;  therefore, 
large  quantities  of  moisture  are  necessary  to  properly  nourish  the 
plants. 

In  addition  to  its  function  as  a  carrier  of  plant  food,  soil  mois- 
ture is  essential  to  the  welfare  of  plants  in  supplying  the  water 
they  are  continually  transpiring  from  their  leaf  surfaces.  If  the 
water  supply  at  the  roots  is  cut  off,  the  plants  wilt,  and  if  the 
shortage  continues,  they  eventually  die.  Plants  abundantly  sup- 
plied with  moisture  make  a  more  rapid  and  succulent  growth  than 
those  less  fully  supplied.  Rapidity  of  growth,  in  many  kinds  of 
vegetables,  means  earlier  market  condition,  larger  size  and  better 
prices.  Succulence  is  closely  associated  with  high  quality  in  many 
vegetables.  Rapid  growth  makes  for  a  tender  product  in  the  root 
and  foliage  crops,  while  slow  growth  is  likely  to  result  in  toughness 
of  texture.  Large  crops  of  vegetables  of  good  quality  are  there- 
fore dependent  to  a  considerable  extent  upon  the  moisture  supply 
available  to  the  plants.  If  no  moisture  whatever  is  available, 
there  will  be  no  plant  growth.  The  difference  between  a  desert 
and  a  prairie  is  a  matter  of  moisture;  so  is  the  difference  between 
a  sage  brush  plain  and  an  irrigated  garden. 

SOURCES    OF    WATER    SUPPLY 

In  humid  regions  vegetable  growers  as  well  as  general  farmers 
depend  almost  exclusively  upon  the  natural  rainfall  to  supply 
moisture  to  their  growing  crops.  Even  where  the  annual  rainfall 
is  ample  for  the  production  of  maximum  crops,  it  often  happens 
that  on  account  of  unfavorable  distribution  of  the  rainfall  through 
the  season,  vegetable  crops  suffer  severely  from  lack  of  moisture 
at  critical  times.  Cauliflowers  fail  to  head,  lettuce  runs  to  seed, 
turnips  turn  bitter,  sweet  corn  "fires"  clear  to  the  tassel — all 
from  the  lack  of  a  good  rain  at  the  right  time.    The  planting  of 

35 


36 


THE  MOISTURE  SUPPLY 


late  crops  is  also  frequently  delayed  while  the  gardener  is  waiting 
for  a  rain  to  soften  the  soil  so  that  a  suitable  seed-bed  may  be  pre- 
pared and  germination  take  place.  Plants  ready  for  transplanting 
may  become  worthless  during  the  wait.  If  the  delay  is  too  long 
the  crop,  though  finally  planted,  may  not  have  time  to  mature. 

Gardening  is  thus  a  somewhat  precarious  business  where  the 
clouds  constitute  the  sole  source  of  the  moisture  supply.    For  this 


Fig.  17. — Skinner  system  of  irrigation  in  operation  near  Danville,  Illinois. 

reason,  even  in  humid  climates,  market  gardeners  operating  on 
high-priced  land,  where  it  is  imperative  that  no  time  be  lost  be- 
tween succeeding  crops,  are  more  and  more  equipping  their  gardens 
with  facilities  for  artificial  watering.  The  old  practice  of  carrying 
water  in  buckets  or  hauling  it  in  tanks  to  keep  plants  from  dying 
that  were  recently  transplanted,  is  giving  place  in  some  of  the 
more  intensive  gardens  to  facilities  for  applying  sufficient  water 
to  make  the  plants  thrive — and  not  merely  live — in  spite  of  a 
protracted  drought.  Such  arrangements  are  feasible  only  where 
an  abundant  supply  of  water  is  available.  Gardens  located  along 
the  bank  of  a  river  or  the  shore  of  a  lake  may  be  supplied  with 
water  by  means  of  a  private  pumping  station  operated  by  a  gasoline 
or  steam  engine.  An  ordinary  well  is  seldom  adequate  to  supply 
water  for  a  market  garden  of  any  considerable  size.  Gardens 
within  the  limits  of  large  cities  are  often  in  reach  of  the  city  water 
supply.    In  such  cases,  that  is  the  most  feasible  source  of  water. 


OVERHEAD  IRRIGATION  37 

The  Old  Plan. — Until  within  very  recent  years,  the  market 
gardens  of  the  East  which  were  equipped  for  artificial  watering 
were  supplied  with  water  through  underground  pipes  to  which 
short  vertical  pipes  terminating  in  hose  bibs  were  attached  at 
intervals  of  from  one  to  two  hundred  feet.  When  the  watering 
of  a  given  area  was  desired,  a  hose  was  attached  to  the  nearest 
bib  and  the  distribution  of  water  manipulated  by  an  attendant. 

The  most  recent  development  in  the  line  of  watering  market 
gardens  where  there  is  a  supply  of  water  under  pressure  is  known 
as  the  overhead,  or  Skinner  system  of  irrigation.  It  consists 
essentially  of  a  line  of  galvanized  iron  pipe,  extending  length- 
ways of  the  area  to  be  watered,  mounted  usually  on  posts,  and 
attached  to  the  water  supply  pipe  in  such  a  way  that  it  can  be 
readily  turned  upon  its  longitudinal  axis.    A  series  of  small  holes 


« 


Fig.  18. — Irrigating  onions  near  Greeley,  Colorado.    The  water  has  broken  out  of 
the  shallow  furrows  and  is  flooding  the  field  on  the  left. 

are  drilled  in  the  pipe  at  intervals  of  three  to  four  feet,  and  small 
nozzles  inserted  in  the  holes.  The  nozzle  and  the  machine  for 
drilling  the  holes  are  covered  by  letters  patent.  Care  is  exercised 
in  drilling  the  holes  to  have  them  exactly  in  line  with  one  another. 
When  the  apparatus  is  connected  up  and  the  water  turned  on, 
a  fine  stream  that  breaks  into  a  spray  issues  from  each  nozzle. 
By  turning  the  pipe  slightly  from  time  to  time,  the  direction  of 
the  spray  is  changed  so  that  eventually  the  entire  area  along  both 
sides  of  the  pipe  within  range  of  the  nozzles  is  thoroughly  watered. 
Ity  having  a  series  of  lines  of  pipe  close  enough  together  so  that 
the  spray  from  one  will  reach  half-way  to  the  next,  it  is  possible 
to  water  an  area  of  almost  any  size. 

The  higher  the  pressure,  the  more  rapidly  the  water  will  be 
discharged  from  the  nozzles.    Thus,  at  a  pressure  of  20  pounds, 


38 


THE  MOISTURE  SUPPLY 


200  nozzles  (the  number  used  for  an  acre  of  ground,  if  the  nozzles 
are  four  feet  apart  on  the  pipe,  and  the  pipes  are  54  feet  apart) 
will  deliver  27,152  gallons  of  water  (the  quantity  required  to  equal 
one  acre-inch  or  the  equivalent  of  one  inch  of  rainfall  over  one 
acre)  in  13  hours  and  18  minutes.  If,  however,  the  pressure  is  40 
pounds,  the  same  amount  of  water  will  be  discharged  by  the  same 
nozzles  in  9  hours  and  23  minutes.  The  slow  delivery  of  the  water 
resembles  a  very  fine,  misty  rain,  rather  than  a  dashing  shower. 
In  large  installations,  the  turning  of  the  pipes  is  automatically 


Fig.  19.—  Field  of  cabbage  furrowed  out  ready  for  irrigating.    Greeley,  Colorado. 

controlled  from  the  pumping  station.  In  small  installations,  the 
gardener  who  is  attending  to  other  work,  occasionally  gives  the 
pipes  a  turn;  so  that,  although  it  takes  a  long  time  for  an  acre 
to  be  watered,  very  little  of  an  attendant's  time  is  required. 

Sometimes  in  small  installations  one  line  of  pipe  is  made  to 
water  a  large  area  by  being  moved  from  place  to  place  across  the 
field.  In  such  cases,  the  pipe  may  be  mounted  on  movable  sup- 
ports instead  of  permanent  posts  (Fig.  17). 


IRRIGATION 

Arrangements  for  watering  such  as  those  already  described  are 
used  principally  in  humid  regions  for  supplementing  the  natural 
rainfall  where  some  special  crop  is  likely  to  suffer  from  lack  of 
moisture.  Relatively  few  gardens  in  the  East  are  fully  equipped 
for  the  artificial  watering  of  their  entire  areas.  Chief  dependence 
is  placed  upon  the  rainfall  to  supply  the  moisture  for  producing 
the  crops.    In  eastern  gardens  rain  is  fundamental  and  irrigation 


SOURCES  OF  IRRIGATION  WATER 


39 


incidental.  In  the  arid  regions  of  the  West,  however,  where  rain- 
fall is  scarce  during  the  growing  season,  irrigation  is  depended 
upon  to  produce  the  crops  and  any  summer  rains  that  may  occur 
are  purely  incidental.  In  humid  regions,  irrigation  is  a  problem 
for  the  individual  grower;  in  arid  regions  it  is  a  problem  for  the 


Fig.  19a. — Furrow  irrigation  of  melons  (cantaloupes)  immediately  following  planting. 
Rocky  Ford,  Colorado. 

entire  country,  for  in  many  places  no  crops  whatever  in  field  or 
garden  can  be  produced  without  it. 

Sources  of  Irrigation  Water. — Some  of  the  sources  of  water 


s'.'2H£% 


m 


Fig.  20. — Plantation  of  lettuce  arranged  for  raised-bed  irrigation.      Sacramento,  Cal. 

supply  in  irrigated  regions  are  rivers  fed  from  melting  snow 
through  mountain  streams,  natural  lakes  at  high  elevation,  arti- 
ficial lakes  or  reservoirs  for  the  storage  of  storm  water,  artesian 
wells.  Usually  the  water  is  conducted  for  long  distances  through 
1  open  ditches,  flumes  or  conduits,  before  it  reaches  the  land  to  be 


10 


THE  MOISTURE  SUPPLY 


irrigated.  Whenever  possible  it  is  delivered  by  gravity,  but  some- 
times pumping  is  necessary  to  raise  the  water  to  a  point  higher 
than  the  land  to  be  irrigated. 

Lateral  ditches,  connected  with  the  main  ditches  by  gates, 
conduct  the  water  to  each  field  or  garden.  The  time  at  which  a 
man  may  secure  water  from  the  main  ditch  that  is  supposed  to 
supply  his  land  is  determined  by  laAv  or,  agreement  rather  than 
by  the  needs  of  his  crops.  Lateral  or  sublateral  ditches  carry  the 
water  along  the  highest  parts  of  each  field.  From  the  laterals 
it  is  distributed  over  the  fields  or  gardens  to  be  watered.  To  be 
irrigated  readily  the  land  should  slope  gradually  and  uniformly 
m  at  least  one  direction  from  a  given  lateral. 


Flo.  21. — Narrow  tooth  cultivator — a  pood  tool  for  conserving  moisture. 

Methods  of  Irrigating. — There  are  various  methods  of  applying 
the  irrigation  water  to  the  growing  crop,  but  they  are  usually 
some  form  of  either  flood  or  furrow  irrigation.  Flood  irrigation 
is  extensively  used  for  alfalfa  and  sowed  grains,  but  much  less 
frequently  for  vegetable  crops  planted  in  rows.  Furrow  irrigation 
of  vegetables  is  much  more  common,  though  if  very  shallow  furrows 
are  made  and  a  large  amount  of  water  turned  in,  it  frequently 
breaks  out  of  the  furrows,  so  that  in  some  parts  of  the  field  the 
effect  is  much  the  same  as  if  flood  irrigation  had  been  employed 
(Fig.  18).  Flooding  is  admissible  with  certain  vegetable  crops, 
but  detrimental  to  others,  such  as  celery. 


METHODS  OF  IRRIGATING  41 

A  field  of  vegetables  planted  in  rows  is  prepared  for  irrigation 
by  making  shallow  furrows  at  the  proper  intervals  by  means  of 
suitable  attachments  on  tillage  tools  (Fig.  19).  If  the  rows  are 
very  close  together,  as  is  common  with  onions  and  similar  crops, 
one  furrow  for  every  two  or  three  rows  may  be  sufficient.  In 
crops  planted  far  apart,  like  melons,  one  furrow  is  usually  made 
for  each  row  but  is  close  to  the  row  rather  than  midway  between 
two  rows  (Fig.  19a). 

After  the  furrows  are  made  and  little  ditches  cut  to  connect 
them  with  the  lateral,  the  water  is  turned  from  the  lateral,  by 


Fig.  22. — Conserving  moisture  by  thorough  tillage. 

means  of  a  temporary  dam,  into  a  few  of  the  furrows  at  a  time. 
It  is  allowed  to  run  the  entire  length  of  these  furrows  and  continue 
running  until  the  soil  surrounding  the  plants  becomes  well  soaked 
with  water.  The  temporary  dam  in  the  lateral  is  then  moved 
downstream  a  few  feet,  and  dirt  is  quickly  shoveled  in  to  close 
the  little  ditches  leading  from  the  lateral  to  tho  furrows  already 
irrigated.  The  process  is  repeated,  irrigating  a  few  rows  at  a  time, 
until  the  whole  field  has  been  watered.  The  number  of  rows  that 
can  be  irrigated  at  a  time  is  determined  mainly  by  the  head  of 
water  available.  For  irrigating  celery,  the  furrows  are  connected 
with  the  lateral  by  means  of  miniature  water  gates,  which  make 
it  possible  to  regulate  to  a  nicety  the  amount  of  water  delivered 
into  each  furrow,  and  thus  avoid  flooding. 

A  modified  form  of  furrow  irrigation  is  raised-bed  irrigation. 
The  vegetables  are  planted  in  very  narrow  beds,  each  bed  often 


42  THE  MOISTURE  SUPPLY 

containing  only  two  rows  of  vegetables,  one  planted  along  each 
edge.  Furrows  from  four  to  eight  inches  deep,  and  often  as  wide 
as  the  beds  themselves,  separate  the  beds.  In  irrigating,  the  fur- 
rows are  filled  with  water,  which  is  prevented  from  escaping,  by  a 
dam  at  the  lower  end,  and  is  soon  absorbed  by  the  soil  (Fig.  20) . 

CONSERVATION    OF    MOISTURE 

Whether  water  is  supplied  to  the  land  by  rainfall,  sprinkling, 
or  irrigation,  it  escapes  rapidly  by  evaporation  unless  some  means 
are  employed  to  conserve  it.  The  most  feasible  means  of  retarding 
evaporation  of  moisture  from  the  soil  is  to  break  up  the  surface 
layer  into  fine  particles  so  that  it  will  serve  as  a  mulch  and  prevent 
rapid  evaporation  from  the  undisturbed  soil  below.  The  breaking 
up  of  the  surface  can  best  be  accomplished  by  means  of  tillage 
tools  (Fig.  21).  To  be  most  effectual  in  conserving  moisture,  it 
should  be  done  as  soon  after  a  rain  or  irrigation  as  the  soil  reaches 
workable  condition  (Fig.  22) .  The  depth  of  tillage  and  the  particu- 
lar kind  of  tool  to  use  will  depend  upon  the  crop,  the  type  of  soil, 
and  the  climate.  Deeper  tillage  is  usually  necessary  in  arid  than 
m  humid  regions. 

Thorough  preparation  of  the  soil  before  planting,  so  that  it 
is  finely  divided  to  a  considerable  depth,  the  presence  of  a  large 
amount  of  organic  matter  in  the  soil,  and  careful  surface  tillage 
following  each  application  of  water,  whether  through  rain  or 
irrigation,  will  enable  the  growing  crop  to  secure  the  maximum 
benefit  from  the  moisture  which  reaches  the  soil.  It  is  surprising 
how  much  drought  some  crops  can  endure  if  the  moisture  present, 
in  the  soil  earlier  in  the  season  has  been  intelligently  conserved. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  In  what  form  can  plants  make  use  of  plant  food? 

2.  What  is  the  relation  of  water  to  rapidity  of  growth? 

3.  Is  irrigation  of  vegetable  crops  practicable  in  humid  climates? 

4.  What  is  the  most  recently  developed  system  of  irrigation  for  garden  crops? 

Describe  this  system. 

5.  Contrast  the  relation  of  irrigation  to  crop  production  in  humid  and  in 

arid  regions. 

6.  What  are  some  of  the  chief  sources  of  water  for  irrigation  purposes? 

7.  How  is  the  water  conveyed  from  the  source  of  supply  to  the  field  to  be 

irrigated? 

8.  Describe  the  process  of  furrow  irrigation. 

9.  Is  the  application  or  the  conservation  of  moisture  the  more  important? 
10.  Describe  any  irrigation  system  you  have  seen. 


CHAPTER  VII 
THE  TEMPERATURE  FACTOR  * 

The  vegetables  grown  in  our  gardens  are  native  to  many  differ- 
ent countries,  differing  widely  in  climatic  conditions.  Each  kind 
of  vegetable  has  its  own  peculiarities  and  thrives  best  under  cer- 
tain climatic  conditions.  When  an  attempt  is  made  to  grow 
many  sorts  in  the  same  garden  under  the  same  conditions,  it  is 
not  surprising  that  some  thrive  better  than  others.  However, 
many  of  the  difficulties  encountered  can  be  overcome  by  adjusting 
the  time  of  planting  each  crop  to  meet  its  temperature  and  mois- 
ture requirements  as  fully  as  possible.  Failures  in  gardening 
often  result  from  planting  some  crops  too  early  and  others  too 
late.  Each  should  be  planted  at  the  season  most  favorable  to  its 
development. 

Vegetables  are  usually  classified  as  " hardy"  and  " tender." 
This  classification  is  based  upon  the  fact  that  certain  vegetables 
will  endure  the  ordinary  frosts  of  spring  without  injury,  while 
others  would  be  killed  if  subjected  to  the  same  temperatures. 
This  classification  implies  that  danger  of  frost  injury  is  the  chief 
distinction  between  the  two  classes  of  vegetables,  and  that  while 
the  "hardy"  vegetables  can  safely  be  planted  " before  danger  of 
frost  is  over,"  there  would  be  no  objection  to  planting  them  after 
that  time.  As  a  matter  of  fact  many  of  the  so-called  hardy  vege- 
tables would  be  as  utterly  ruined  by  the  heat  and  drought  of 
summer  as  are  the  tender  vegetables  by  the  light  frosts  of  spring. 
They  demand  cool  weather,  and  without  it  will  not  produce  an 
edible  product.  Furthermore,  the  danger  of  frost  injury  is  not 
the  only  reason  the  so-called  tender  vegetables  should  not  be 
planted  early.  The  cool  weather  normal  to  that  season  of  the 
year,  though  no  killing  frost  occurred,  would  preclude  the  proper 
growth  and  development  of  the  crops  in  question,  for  they 
thrive  only  in  warm  weather.  A  more  satisfactory  wording  for 
this  classification  of  crops  would  therefore  be  "cool  season"  and 
"warm  season"   crops,  for  these  terms  suggest  the  conditions 

*  This  chapter  is  essentially  the  same  as  an  article  written  by  the  author 
for  the  Illinois  Agriculturist,  February,  1911,  and  later  published  in  Circular 
154  of  the  Illinois  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 

43 


44  THE  TEMPERATURE  FACTOR 

under  which  the  crops  must  be  grown  to  develop  satisfactorily, 
rather  than  merely  designating  their  susceptibility  to,  or  immunity 
from,  frost  injury. 

While  vegetables  in  general  may  be  classified  as  cool  season 
and  warm  season  crops,  the  different  vegetables  in  each  of  these 
classes  do  not  thrive  equally  well  under  the  same  conditions  of 
temperature  and  moisture.  Although  all  the  cool  season  crops 
will  germinate  and  grow  at  a  relatively  low  temperature,  and 
demand  comparatively  cool  weather  for  their  highest  development, 
some  will  endure  and  even  demand  lower  temperature  than  others. 
The  converse  also  is  true :  Some  will  endure  much  higher  tempera- 
ture than  others. 

Cool  Season  Crops. — From  a  cultural  standpoint,  the  cool 
season  crops  may  be  divided  into  three  general  groups:  (1) 
The  first  group  is  composed  of  short  season  crops  which  cannot 
endure  the  heat  of  summer,  but  which  can  safely  be  planted  in 
the  open  ground  sufficiently  early  to  attain  full  development 
before  the  normal  season  for  hot  weather.  The  following  vege- 
tables belong  to  this  group:  Garden  cress,  kohlrabi,  leaf  lettuce, 
mustard,  peas,  radishes,  spinach,  turnips.  Of  these  crops,  cress, 
lettuce,  mustard,  and  spinach  will  stand  slightly  lower  temperature 
in  the  seedling  stage  than  the  other  crops  mentioned.  However, 
in  practice  they  are  usually  all  planted  as  soon  as  the  ground  can 
be  worked  in  the  spring.  Additional  plantings  of  lettuce,  radishes 
and  peas  can  be  made  somewhat  later  for  the  sake  of  securing  a 
succession,  since  radishes  and  lettuce  grow  quickly,  and  peas  can 
stand  a  slightly  higher  temperature  than  most  of  the  other  crops 
of  the  group.  Any  later  plantings  of  cress,  mustard,  spinach,  or 
early  turnips  are  usually  overtaken  by  such  high  temperature 
that  the  products  are  of  little  value,  so  that  it  is  usually  unwise 
to  plant  these  crops  in  central  latitudes  any  later  than  the  very 
opening  of  spring. 

Some  of  the  crops  in  this  group  can  also  be  grown  in  the  autumn 
if  there  is  sufficient  moisture  available.  Turnips,  radishes,  lettuce, 
and  spinach  are  the  crops  best  adapted  to  this  purpose.  In  the 
extreme  South,  this  entire  group  of  plants  may  be  grown  in  the 
midst  of  winter. 

(2)  The  second  group  of  cool  season  crops  consists  of  those 
which  cannot  endure  excessive  heat,  and  which  at  the  same  time 
have  so  long  a  period  of  growth  that  it  is  impossible  for  them  to 
complete   their   development   before   the   normal   season  of   hot 


WARM  SEASON  CROPS  45 

weather,  if  the  seed  is  planted  in  the  open  ground  even  as  early 
as  it  is  possible  to  work  the  soil.  Such  crops  are  early  cabbage, 
early  cauliflower  and  head  lettuce.  The  only  way  that  these 
crops  can  be  grown  with  any  assurance  of  success  in  central 
latitudes  is  to  start  the  plants  under  glass  and  have  them 
ready  for  transplanting  as  early  as  the  weather  will  permit. 
This  will  be  about  the  time  the  second  planting  of  radishes  and 
peas  is  made. 

Another  crop  having  temperature  requirements  similar  to 
those  of  cabbage  and  cauliflower  is  celery;  but  this  crop  requires 
so  long  a  season  that  it  is  impossible  to  grow  it  under  field  condi- 
tions as  a  spring  planted  crop  except  in  northern  localities,  where 
the  summers  are  relatively  cool.  Together  with  late  cabbage 
and  cauliflower,  it  can  be  grown  as  a  summer  planted  crop  designed 
to  make  its  principal  growth  during  the  cool,  moist  weather  of 
autumn.  The  success  of  these  three  vegetables  as  autumn  crops 
in  central  latitudes  depends  primarily  upon  the  temperature  and 
the  moisture  supply  during  July,  August,  and  September.  Cool, 
wet  seasons  favor  their  development.  In  hot,  dry  years  they 
may  fail  utterly.  As  commercial  crops,  they  reach  their  highest 
development  only  in  relatively  cool  climates. 

(3)  The  third  group  of  cool  season  crops  consists  of  relatively 
long  season  crops,  demanding  cool,  moist  weather  during  the 
earlier  stages  of  their  development,  but  capable  of  enduring  con- 
siderable heat  and  even  drought  after  becoming  fully  established. 
This  group  includes  beets,  carrots,  chard,  kale,  leeks,  onions, 
parsley,  parsnips,  early  potatoes,  salsify,  upland  cress  and  New 
Zealand  spinach.  It  also  includes  the  perennial  crops,  asparagus 
and  rhubarb.  All  of  these  crops  should  be  planted  relatively 
early,  though  extremely  early  planting  is  more  important  with 
some  than  others  and  is  especially  imperative  in  the  case  of  onions. 
In  actual  practice,  all  the  vegetables  in  this  group,  together  with 
those  of  group  1,  may  be  planted  as  soon  as  the  ground  can  be 
worked  in  the  spring.  If,  however,  the  early  planting  is  followed 
by  unusually  cold,  wet  weather,  replanting  of  the  beets,  carrots, 
chard,  and  parsnips  may  become  necessary,  for  these  crops  do  not 
germinate  readily  at  as  low  temperatures  as  onions  or  kale,  nor 
will  the  seedlings  survive  so  severe  a  frost. 

Warm  Season  Crops. — The  warm  season  crops  fall  naturally 
into  two  groups:  (1)  The  first  group  includes  those  with  a  suffi- 
ciently short  period  of  growth  to  enable  them  to  perfect  their 


46  THE  TEMPERATURE  FACTOR 

product  in  temperate  climates  during  the  normal  season  of  weather 
favorable  to  their  development.  Such  crops  can  be  planted  in 
the  open  ground  after  the  weather  has  become  sufficiently  warm 
in  spring,  and  will  complete  their  growth  and  mature  their  crop 
before  the  plants  are  killed  by  the  frosts  of  autumn.  This  group 
includes  string  beans,  Lima  beans,  sweet  corn,  cucumbers,  gherkins, 
muskmelons,  watermelons,  okra,  squashes  and  pumpkins.  Of 
these  crops,  string  beans  and  sweet  corn  will  germinate  at  a  lower 
temperature,  and  hence  can  be  planted  earlier,  than  the  Lima 
beans  and  the  vine  crops.  All  the  crops  in  this  group  demand 
warm  weather,  but  some  of  them  will  suffer  if  the  weather  is 
excessively  hot  and  dry.  Those  most  resistant  to  drought  are 
gherkins,  watermelons  and  okra;  and  these  crops  are  especially 
adapted  to  southern  localities. 

Some  of  the  vegetables  in  this  group  will  not  mature  in  the 
extreme  northern  part  of  the  United  States  unless  transplanting 
is  resorted  to,  as  in  the  following  group: 

(2)  The  second  group  of  warm  season  crops  consists  of  those 
having  so  long  a  period  of  growth  that  they  are  unable  to  mature 
a  full  crop  in  temperate  climates  unless  started  under  glass  con- 
siderably in  advance  of  the  normal  season  for  weather  suited  to 
their  growth  in  the  open.  This  group  includes  eggplants,  peppers, 
sweet  potatoes  and  tomatoes.  Of  these,  eggplants  and  sweet 
potatoes  demand  a  higher  temperature  than  tomatoes  and  peppers, 
and  under  normal  seasonal  conditions  should  not  be  transplanted 
to  the  open  ground  until  two  or  three  weeks  after  the  ideal  time 
for  setting  tomatoes.  Eggplants  and  sweet  potatoes  are  especially 
suited  to  growing  in  localities  subject  to  severe  drought,  for  after 
these  plants  have  once  become  well  established,  their  demands 
for  moisture  are  not  great,  and  the  more  intense  the  heat,  the 
better  they  grow. 

Importance  of  Season. — The  wide  differences  in  the  tempera- 
ture and  moisture  requirements  of  the  various  vegetable  crops, 
as  above  outlined,  explain  why  some  crops  thrive  much  better 
some  seasons  than  others,  in  the  same  locality,  and  also  why 
certain  crops  are  most  extensively  grown  in  certain  localities. 
However,  careful  attention  to  the  time  of  planting  each  crop  in 
view  of  its  particular  temperature  requirements,  will  enable  the 
gardener  to  grow  to  perfection  a  much  larger  assortment  of  vege- 
tables in  the  same  garden  than  could  possibly  be  done  without 
consideration  of  the  specific  requirements  of  each  particular  crop. 


IMPORTANCE  OF  SEASON  47 

The  importance  of  planting  vegetables  at  the  right  time  is  not 
appreciated  by  most  home  gardeners.  In  spite  of  all  the  advice 
of  writers  to  the  contrary,  many  people  continue  to  plant  peas 
and  corn,  spinach  and  cucumbers,  lettuce  and  tomatoes  at  the 
same  time,  and  then  wonder  why  their  gardening  is  not  a  success. 
The  most  important  teachings  in  this  book  deal  with  the  tempera- 
ture requirements  and  time  of  planting  of  each  of  the  different 
vegetables.  A  thorough  mastery  of  this  important  subject  would 
turn  failure  into  success  for  many  gardeners. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Why  do  not  all  vegetables  thrive  equally  well  in  the  same  garden? 

2.  What  is  meant  by  a  "hardy''  vegetable?    A  "tender"  vegetable?    Suggest 

more  appropriate  terms  for  designating  these  two  groups  of  vegetables. 

3.  Into  what  three  general  groups  may  the  cool  season  crops  be  divided? 

4.  Give  several  examples  of  vegetables  belonging  to  each  of  these  groups. 

5.  Into  what  two  general  groups  may  warm  season  crops  be  divided? 

6.  Give  four  examples  of  vegetables  belonging  to  each  of  these  groups. 

7.  What  will  increase  the  number  of  kinds  of  vegetables  that  can  be  grown 

successfully  in  a  given  locality? 

8.  What  vegetables  are  commonly  grown  in  your  locality,  for  home  or  for 

market? 

9.  Do  any  gardeners  succeed  with  other  kinds  not  commonly  grown? 


CHAPTER  VIII 

TRANSPLANTING 

Reasons  for  Transplanting.— As  already  mentioned  in  con- 
nection with  the  consideration  of  temperature  requirements,  there 
are  certain  crops  that  cannot  be  successfully  grown  in  temperate 
climates  unless  the  gardener  resorts  to  transplanting.  These  crops 
have  been  enumerated  in  Chapter  VII.  Mention  was  also  made 
of  the  fact  that  in  extreme  northern  localities,  certain  other  vege- 
tables, normally  planted  in  the  open,  might  be  started  under  glass 
and  transplanted,  in  order  to  secure  a  crop  outside  the  normal 
limits  of  their  successful  culture.  It  is  also  true  that  in  localities 
where  these  crops  could  be  successfully  grown  without  transplant- 
ing, they  are  sometimes  transplanted  in  order  to  secure  a  crop 
ahead  of  the  normal  season.  The  same  is  true  of  certain  other 
crops  in  addition  to  all  those  to  which  reference  has  been  made. 
Market  growers  sometimes  transplant  beets,  onions,  kohlrabi 
and  parsley  in  order  to  secure  an  extra  early  crop. 

Under  intensive  methods  of  culture,  there  is  also  another 
reason  for  transplanting.  It  saves  the  time  of  the  land  and  makes 
it  possible  to  grow  an  additional  crop  during  the  season.  In  this 
case,  the  crop  may  be  started  in  the  open  and  not  mature  ahead 
of  its  normal  season.  It  is  merely  transplanted  instead  of  being 
thinned,  in  order  that  space  may  be  saved  during  the  early  stages 
of  its  growth.     Rutabagas  are  sometimes  handled  in  this  way. 

Economic  Questions  Involved. — Except  in  the  case  of  vege- 
tables which  cannot  be  successfully  grown  in  the  given  locality 
without  resorting  to  transplanting  the  question  as  to  whether  or 
not  transplanting  is  admissible  must  be  decided  partly  from  an 
economic  standpoint,  and  partly  from  the  standpoint  of  the  be- 
havior of  the  plant.  In  general,  transplanting  is  most  desirable 
in  the  case  of  crops  in  which  the  product  of  the  individual  plant 
is  of  considerable  value  or  in  which  there  is  a  substantial  premium 
on  earliness.  The  greater  the  value  of  the  product,  the  more 
pains  it  is  possible  to  take  in  order  to  make  the  plants  thrive. 
When  beets,  onions  and  kohlrabi  are  transplanted,  little  time 
can  be  spent  with  each  plant,  for  the  value  of  the  individual 
product  is  slight.  On  the  other  hand  extreme  care  can  be  taken 
48 


CHARACTER  OF  PLANTS  DESIRED  49 

with  eggplants,  because  the  product  of  a  single  plant  may  be  worth 
as  much  as  fifty  beets. 

Behavior  of  Different  Plants. — In  regard  to  the  behavior  of 
the  plants,  it  may  be  said  that  some  plants  bear  transplanting 
much  more  readily  than  others,  and  are  almost  certain  to  survive 
and  develop  a  marketable  crop  even  though  no  special  precautions 
are  taken  in  handling  them.  On  the  other  hand,  there  are  certain 
crops  which  suffer  severely  when  transplanted  unless  special  care 
is  taken  to  have  all  conditions  favorable.  In  general,  plants  with 
a  large  development  of  fibrous  roots  and  a  compact  root  system 
are  likely  to  suffer  less  in  transplanting  than  those  in  which  the 
root  system  consists  principally  of  a  few  long  fibres  or  a  single 
tap-root.  Plants  in  which  the  long  tap-root  constitutes  the  edible 
product,  as  in  the  case  of  parsnips,  would  be  especially  difficult 
to  transplant  successfully.  If  the  tap-root  were  broken  during 
the  operation,  a  misshapen  product  would  likely  result.  Long 
beets  would  be  almost  as  difficult  to  transplant.  Turnip-shaped 
beets  can  be  handled  satisfactorily. 

The  age  of  the  plant  may  have  an  important  bearing  upon  the 
success  attending  its  transplanting.  In  general,  the  root  system 
of  a  very  young  plant  will  be  much  less  seriously  disturbed  in 
transplanting  than  that  of  an  older  one  of  the  same  species,  so 
that,  under  controlled  moisture  conditions,  it  may  be  feasible  to 
transplant  certain  species  while  small  that  could  not  readily  be 
handled  when  older.  Furthermore,  early  transplanting  favors  the 
development  of  a  fibrous  root  system,  which  in  turn  may  have 
an  important  bearing  upon  the  success  of  subsequent  transplanting 
of  the  same  specimen.  However,  if  shifted  from  a  greenhouse  or 
hotbed  to  outdoor  conditions,  a  very  young  and  tender  plant  of  a 
readily  transplanted  species  has  insufficient  substance  to  with- 
stand the  vicissitudes  of  the  weather,  and  is  much  less  likely  to 
thrive  than  a  somewhat  older  plant  of  the  same  species. 

The  one  great  principle  involved  in  all  successful  transplanting 
is  that  the  plants  must  be  in  such  condition  and  handled  in  such 
a  way  that  they  will  not  suffer  from  lack  of  moisture  during,  or 
shortly  following,  the  operation  of  transplanting. 

Character  of  Plants  Desired. — For  transplanting  into  the  open 
ground,  the  plants  should  be  strong  and  stocky  as  a  result  of  having 
been  grown  under  favorable  conditions  with  sufficient  space  for 
good  development  of  both  root  and  top  (Fig.  23).  They  should 
be  of  suitable  age  for  transplanting.  This  varies  from  four  to 
4 


50 


TRANSPLANTING 


twelve  weeks,  depending  upon  the  kind  of  plant  in  question.  Plants 
grown  in  hotbeds  or  greenhouses  should  be  properly  "hardened 
off"  before  transplanting  into  the  open.  This  is  accomplished  by 
diminishing  the  amount  of  water  applied  and  gradually  accustom- 
ing the  plants  to  lower  temperature.  Under  this  treatment  the 
plants  cease  their  rapid,  sappy  growth  and  become  more  hard  and 
woody.    In  this  condition  they  bear  transplanting  more  readily. 


Fig.   23. — Well-grown  tomato  plants  ready  for  transplanting. 


Plants  are  kept  from  suffering  from  lack  of  moisture  while 
being  transplanted  (1)  by  very  thorough  watering  a  few  hours 
before  they  are  removed  from  the  seed-bed,  so  that  their  tissues 
will  be  filled  with  water,  and  also  in  order  that  they  may  be  removed 
without  seriously  damaging  the  roots;  (2)  by  transplanting  as 
quickly  as  possible  after  removing  from  the  seed-bed;  and  (3)  by 
protecting  the  plants  from  wilting  while  they  are  being  carried 
about   the   field   during  the   transplanting.     This   protection   is 


FIRMING  THE  SOIL  ABOUT  THE  ROOTS  51 

afforded  (1)  by  carrying  the  supply  of  plants  with  their  roots 
submerged  in  a  bucket  of  water;  (2)  by  sprinkling  the  tops  as 
well  as  the  roots;  (3)  by  carrying  the  plants  in  a  basket  covered 
with  a  wet  sack;  or  (4)  by  having  the  roots  of  the  plants  encased 
in  a  mass  of  moist  soil. 

Means  of  Insuring  Moisture  following  Transplanting. — There 
are  a  number  of  different  means  of  insuring  that  the  plant  shall 
have  a  sufficient  supply  of  moisture  immediately  following  trans- 
planting. These  naturally  fall  into  three  different  groups:  (1) 
Making  sure  that  there  is  moist  soil  in  close  contact  with  the  roots 
of  the  plant  at  the  time  of  transplanting;  (2)  preventing  the  dry- 
ing out  of  the  soil  close  to  the  plant  after  transplanting;  (3)  re- 
ducing the  rate  of  transpiration  of  water  from  the  plant  itself. 

In  order  that  there  may  be  moist  soil  in  close  contact  with  the 
roots  of  the  plants  it  is  essential  that  the  soil  in  the  field  where 
the  transplanting  is  to  be  done  shall  have  been  thoroughly  worked 
to  render  it  fine  and  mellow.  This  working  should  have  been  done 
while  the  soil  was  in  ideal  condition  as  to  moisture,  and  if  trans- 
planting was  not  to  take  place  until  some  time  later,  the  surface 
should  have  been  stirred  at  frequent  intervals  in  the  meantime 
in  order  to  conserve  the  moisture  in  the  layer  of  soil  immediately 
below.  If  this  has  been  done,  it  is  possible  to  transplant  success- 
fully even  when  the  top  soil  is  very  dry,  by  scraping  away  the  dry 
soil  where  each  plant  is  to  be  set  and  placing  the  roots  of  the  plant 
in  the  moist  soil  below.  Of  course,  the  operation  of  transplanting 
can  be  carried  on  more  readily  if  the  soil  is  moist  clear  to  the  top, 
for  it  is  then  unnecessary  to  hunt  for  moist  soil. 

Firming  the  Soil  about  the  Roots. — In  all  transplanting  the 
soil  should  be  packed  firmly  about  the  roots  of  the  plant.  Mois- 
ture in  the  soil  is  of  no  benefit  to  the  plant  unless  it  is  in  close 
contact  with  the  roots.  Loose  moist  soil  soon  dries  out.  If  the 
soil  is  packed  tightly  about  the  roots  of  the  plant  (Fig.  24),  not 
only  the  moisture  in  the  soil  in  immediate  contact  with  the  roots 
will  be  available  to  them,  but  moisture  will  also  be  drawn  to  them 
from  adjacent  soil  by  capillary  action.  The  drier  and  looser  the 
soil  the  tighter  it  should  be  packed. 

Even  when  these  precautions  are  taken,  certain  kinds  of  plants 
that  it  is  sometimes  desirable  to  transplant  seem  unable  to  es- 
tablish themselves  in  their  new  location.  They  are  likely  to  wilt 
and  die  before  the  roots  have  time  to  re-establish  themselves. 
Melons,  squashes  and  cucumbers  are  striking  examples  of  such 


52 


TRANSPLANTING 


planes.  If  to  be  transplanted,  these  plants  must  be  handled  in 
such  a  way  that  the  roots  will  not  be  removed  from  the  soil  in 
which  they  grew  in  the  seed-bed.  They  may  be  grown  on  inverted 
sods,  in  earthenware  pots,  paper  pots,  oyster  buckets,  strawberry 
boxes,  or  veneer  dirt  bands  (Fig.  25).  The  dirt  bands  are  exten- 
sively used  by  commercial  growers  for  handling  these  plants. 
Other  plants  often  handled  in  pots,  especially  if  to  be  transplanted 
when  quite  large,  are  eggplants  and  tomatoes.  Large  tomato 
plants  are  frequently  handled  without  pots,  but  with  a  block  of  soil 
six  inches  square  enclosing  the  roots.    Almost  any  kind  of  plant  is 


Fig.  24. — Transplanting   lettuce  seedlings  from  one  flat  into  another.      The  soil  is  firmed 
about  the  roots  of  each  plantiet  with  a  pointed  stick  or  pot  label,  used  as  a  dibber. 


somewhat  surer  to  resume  growth  quickly  after  transplanting  if  it 
is  moved  with  soil  adhering  to  the  roots  (Fig.  26).  There  is  then  no 
uncertainty  regarding  the  presence  of  moist  soil  in  intimate  contact 
with  the  roots.  While  this  method  increases  the  labor  of  trans- 
planting, it  also  increases  the  probability  of  success  in  case  soil 
or  weather  conditions  are  unfavorable. 

Tillage  following  Transplanting. — The  drying  out  of  the  soil 
close  about  the  plant  after  transplanting  may  be  largely  prevented 
by  planting  deeply  and  covering  the  compact  soil  about  the  roots 
with  a  layer  of  loose  soil  which  shall  serve  as  a  mulch  to  check 
evaporation  from  the  moist  soil  below.     Thorough  tillage  close 


REDUCING  TRANSPIRATION 


53 


. — Watermelon   plants  in  veneer  dirt 
band,  ready  for  transplanting. 


to  the  plants  immediately  after  setting  will  serve  the  same  purpose, 
and  is  sometimes  the  most  convenient  way  of  making  the  mulch. 

Watering. — If  transplant- 
ing must  be  done  at  a  time 
when  the  soil  is  dry,  water  must 
be  applied  to  each  plant  at  the 
time  it  is  set.  It  is  usually  best 
to  apply  the  water  at  the  root 
of  the  plant  and  to  cover  the 
mud  with  loose  dry  soil  to  pre- 
vent evaporation.  If  subse- 
quent watering  becomes  neces- 
sary, as  is  likely  to  be  the  case 
in  a  dry  time,  the  water  should 
be  applied  close  to  each  plant 
in  sufficient  quantity  to  reach 
the  roots.  As  soon  after  the  watering  as  the  soil  begins  to  dry, 
the  surface  crust  should  be  broken  by  tillage,  so  that  further 

evaporation  will  be  checked. 
In  this  way  the  plant  is  en- 
abled to  secure  the  full  bene- 
fit of  the  water  applied. 

Reducing  Transpiration. — 
If  transpiration  of  water  from 
the  plant  itself  takes  place 
more  rapidly  than  it  can  be 
supplied  from  the  soil  through 
the  roots,  the  plant  will  wilt; 
and  then  if  unfavorable  condi- 
tions continue  too  long  it  will 
eventually  die.  Therefore,  in 
addition  to  insuring  the  pres- 
ence of  moisture  in  the  soil 
immediately  surrounding  the 
roots,  it  is  advisable  to  take 
such  precautions  as  are  fea- 
sible to  reduce  the  rate  of 
transpiration  from  the  plant 
immediately  following  transplanting.  The  rate  of  transpiration 
depends  considerably  upon  the  temperature  and  humidity  of  the 
atmosphere.     The  more  humid  the  atmosphere  at  the  time  of 


Fig.  26. — A  pot-grown  tomato  plant,  showing 
ball  of  earth  and  development  of  roots. 


54 


TRANSPLANTING 


Fig.  27.— Removing  tops  from  beet  seedlings  preparatory  to  transplanting. 


HI 


Fia.  28  — Beet  and  onion  seedlings  before  and  after  removal  of  tops  preparatory  to 
transplanting. 


transplanting,  the  less  rapid  will  be  the  rate  of  transpiration  from 
the  plant.  Therefore,  transplanting  immediately  before  or  after 
a  rain  is  advisable.  Plants  are  likely  to  wilt  on  account  of  too 
rapid  transpiration  if  they  are  exposed  to  intense  sunlight  immedi- 


METHODS  OF  TRANSPLANTING  55 

ately  after  transplanting.  Therefore  transplanting  on  a  cloudy 
day  or  late  in  the  afternoon  is  a  decided  advantage.  However, 
such  a  precaution  secures  protection  from  the  sun  for  only  a  few 
hours  at  best,  and  in  intensely  hot  weather  may  be  inadequate. 
Protection  from  direct  sunshine  for  as  long  a  time  as  may  be 
desired  can  be  secured  by  shading  each  plant  with  a  broad  shingle, 
flower  pot,  old  basket,  or  even  a  rhubarb  leaf. 

Since,  under  the  same  conditions,  the  amount  of  water  trans- 
pired by  a  plant  bears  a  definite  relation  to  the  extent  of  its  leaf 
surface,  reducing  the  leaf  surface  by  the  removal  of  part  of  the 
foliage  at  the  time  of  transplanting  (Fig.  27)  will  reduce  the  amount 
of  transpiration  and  therefore  in  many  cases  prevent  the  wilting 
of  the  leaves  that  remain.  It  is  much  better  to  sacrifice  part  of 
the  foliage  than  to  run  the  risk  of  losing  the  entire  plant.  It  is 
a  common  practice  to  cut  or  twist  off  one-third  to  two-thirds  of 
the  foliage  from  late  cabbage  and  celery  plants  that  are  trans- 
planted in  midsummer.  This  reduction  of  the  foliage  is  unneces- 
sary in  the  case  of  early  cabbage,  for  at  the  time  it  is  set  the 
weather  is  much  cooler  and  transpiration  therefore  much  less 
rapid.  When  beets  and  onions  are  transplanted,  even  in  early 
spring,  it  is  customary  to  remove  part  of  the  foliage  (Fig.  28). 

METHODS    OF   TRANSPLANTING 

Various  methods  of  transplanting  are  employed.     When  the 
soil  is  moist  clear  to  the  surface  and  weather  conditions  are  favor- 
able, plants  that  can  be  transplanted  without  dirt  on  the  roots  can 
be  very  rapidly  and  readily  set  with  a  dibber  (Fig.  29). 
This  is  essentially  a  sharpened  stick  with  the  upper  end 
shaped  to  fit  the  hand,  but  may  be  shod  with  iron,  or 
even  made  entirely  of  steel.     In  the  latter  case  it  is 
usually  flat  rather  than  round.     In  transplanting,  the 
dibber  is  thrust  into  the  ground  to  make  a  hole;  the 
plant    is    inserted,    and    the    soil    pressed    against    its 
roots  by  another  thrust  of  the  dibber  or  by  pressure  Fig.  29  — 
upon   the    surface    with   the   hands    of   the    operator. 
Cabbage,  celery,  beets,  and  onions  are  usually  set  with  dibbers. 

For  setting  certain  plants,  such  as  sweet  potatoes,  a  spade  is  often 
used  instead  of  a  dibber.  One  man  operates  the  spade  and  another, 
or  preferably  a  boy,  places  the  plants.  The  spade  is  thrust  into 
the  soil  and  the  handle  moved  slightly  forward  to  make  a  wedge- 
shaped  opening.    The  plant  is  thrust  into  the  opening  and  held  in 


56 


TRANSPLANTING 


place  until  the  spade  is  withdrawn.  Another  thrust  of  the  spade  and 
a  step  of  the  foot  closes  the  hole  and  firms  the  soil  about  the  plant. 
Experienced  hands  set  sweet  potatoes  very  rapidly  by  this  method. 


Fig.   30.— Trowel. 


If  small  plants  are  to  be  transplanted  with  earth  attached,  a 
garden  trowel  (Fig.  30)  is  often  a  more  convenient  tool  to  use  than 
a  dibber.    This  is  especially  true  if  the  plants  are  to  be  transplanted 


Fig.  31. — Transplanting  machine. 


from  pots.  A  hole  is  dug  with  the  trowel,  the  plant  inserted,  and 
with  the  hands  moist  earth  is  packed  about  the  mass  of  soil  con- 
taining the  roots. 

When  large  plants,  such  as  eggplants,  tomatoes  and  melons,  are 
to  be  transplanted  with  a  mass  of  earth  surrounding  the  roots,  a  hole 
for  each  plant  may  be  dug  with  a  spade  if  the  number  of  plants  is 


QUESTIONS  57 

small.    However,  in  commercial  operations,  the  field  to  be  planted 
is  furrowed  out  both  ways  and  the  plants  set  at  the  intersections. 

Transplanting  machines  drawn  by  horses  are  useful  for  the 
commercial  planting  of  certain  crops.  Only  plants  that  can  be 
set  without  dirt  attached  can  be  transplanted  by  the  use  of  these 
machines  (Fig.  31).  One  person  drives  the  team  and  two  others 
seated  at  the  rear  of  the  machine  with  a  supply  of  plants  in  their 
laps,  place  the  plants  in  the  furrow  as  it  is  opened.  Shoes  or  rollers 
following  close  the  furrows  and  compact  the  soil.  There  is  an 
attachment  for  applying  water  to  the  plants  as  they  are  set.  It 
is  practicable  to  use  a  machine  of  this  sort  only  when  large  num- 
bers of  plants  of  the  same  kind  are  to  be  set. 

In  nearly  all  transplanting  of  vegetable  plants  it  is  customary 
to  set  the  plants  slightly  deeper  than  they  grew  previous  to  their 
transplanting.  If  they  have  grown  too  tall,  they  must  be  set  still 
deeper,  in  order  to  make  them  stand  erect  and  to  avoid  sun  scalding 
of  the  stems. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  are  the  principal  reasons  for  transplanting  vegetable  crops? 

2.  What  economic  questions  must  be  considered  in  connection  with  trans- 

planting? 

3.  How  do  plants  differ  in  the  readiness  with  which  they  lend  themselves 

to  transplanting? 

4.  What  relation  has  the  structure  of  the  root  system  of  a  plant  to  its  adapt- 

ability to  transplanting? 

5.  What  is  the  relation  of  the  age  of  a  plant  to  the  ease  with  which  it  may  be 

transplanted? 

6.  State  the  great  underlying  principle  involved  in  all  successful  transplanting. 

7.  Characterize  plants  that  are  in  desirable  condition  for  transplanting. 

8.  What  is  meant  by  "hardening-off "?    How  is  it  accomplished? 

9.  In  what  different  ways  may  plants  be  kept  from  suffering  from  lack  of 

moisture  while  being  transplanted? 

10.  What  are  the  various  means  of  insuring  that  a  plant  shall  have  a  sufficient 

supply  of  moisture  immediately  following  transplanting? 

11.  What  special  precautions  must  be  taken  in  transplanting  melons,  cucum- 

bers, and  similar  crops? 

12.  Why  is  tillage  important  immediately  following  transplanting? 

13.  Under  what  circumstances  is  watering  necessary  at  the  time  of  transplanting  ? 

14.  How  may  the  transpiration  of  water  from  a  plant  be  reduced? 

15.  Describe  the  method  of  setting  plants  with  a  dibber.     With  a  spade. 

With  a  trowel. 

16.  Describe  the  operation  of  a  transplanting  machine. 

17.  How  deeply  should  plants  be  set  when  transplanted? 

18.  Are  any  machine  planters  used  in  your  vicinity?    If  so,  for  what  kinds  of 

plants  are  they  used? 


CHAPTER  IX 

THE  USE  OF  GLASS  IN  VEGETABLE  GROWING 

Vegetable  plants  for  early  transplanting  are  usually  started 
under  glass.  Glass  is  also  used  for  growing  certain  crops  to 
maturity  outside  their  normal  season,  and  in  certain  sections  for 
wintering  over  plants  started  in  the  autumn.  There  are  three 
kinds  of  glass  structures  that  may  be  used  in  vegetable  growing: 
Coldframes,  hotbeds  and  greenhouses. 

A  coldframe  is  the  simplest  form  of  glass  structure  and  consists 
essentially  of  a  wooden  frame  covered  with  glass  sash.  It  depends 
solely  upon  the  sun  for  its  source  of  heat,  and  upon  the  protection 
of  the  glass  and  additional  covering  to  prevent  too  rapid  radiation 
of  the  heat  at  night.  It  is  impossible  to  make  a  coldframe  very 
warm  in  cold  weather.  Its  usefulness  is  therefore  limited  to  rela- 
tively mild  climates,  the  growing  of  cool-season  crops,  the  starting 
of  plants  for  rather  late  transplanting,  or  the  hardening-off  of 
plants  started  in  greenhouses  and  hotbeds.  Its  principal  use  in 
general  vegetable  growing  at  the  North  is  for  hardening-off  plants 
preparatory  to  transplanting,  and  for  this  purpose  it  has  no  equal. 
Sometimes,  for  the  sake  of  cheapness,  cloth  is  substituted  for  glass 
as  a  cover  for  coldframes  (Fig.  32),  but  this  limits  their  use  to 
still  warmer  weather  than  when  glass  is  employed. 

A  hotbed  is  very  much  like  a  coldframe  except  that  it  is  sup- 
plied with  heat  in  addition  to  that  furnished  directly  by  the  sun. 
The  most  common  source  of  heat  for  hotbeds  is  fermenting  horse 
manure  placed  under  the  soil  of  the  bed.  Other  hotbeds  are  heated 
through  flues  by  means  of  wood  or  coal  fires.  Occasionally  a  bed 
is  heated  by  steam  or  hot  water  through  pipes  connected  with  the 
heating  system  of  a  greenhouse  or  residence. 

Hotbeds  are  superior  to  coldframes  for  starting  early  plants 
because  they  can  be  operated  in  colder  weather.  At  the  North 
it  is  impossible  to  grow  really  early  tomato,  pepper,  or  egg  plants 
by  the  use  of  coldframes  alone,  for  these  plants  demand  higher 
temperatures  than  can  be  maintained  in  a  coldframe  at  the  time 
they  must  be  started.  Fire  hotbeds  have  an  advantage  over 
manure  hotbeds,  since  they  can  be  started  in  colder  weather  and 
the  heat  controlled  much  more  completely, 
58 


GREENHOUSES 


59 


Fig.  32. — A  cloth-covered  coldframe. 


Fia.  33. — A  modern  greenhouse.     The  tall  smoke  stack  insures  a  good  draft  for  the  fires. 


60  THE  USE  OF  GLASS 

Greenhouses  furnish  the  most  ideal  conditions  for  starting 
early  vegetable  plants,  for  in  a  properly  constructed  house  any 
desired  temperature  can  be  maintained  to  a  nicety  no  matter 
how  cold  the  weather  (Fig.  33).  Greenhouses  can  be  used  for 
growing  certain  crops  to  maturity  in  the  dead  of  winter,  as  well 
as  for  starting  early  plants  to  be  later  transferred  to  coldframes 
and  the  open  ground.  In  addition  to  the  better  control  of  tem- 
perature, another  great  advantage  of  a  greenhouse  over  hotbeds 
and  coldframes  for  starting  early  plants  is  that  the  gardener  can 
give  the  plants  better  attention  in  bad  weather.  On  stormy 
days,  when  it  may  be  entirely  impracticable  to  work  at  plants  in 
hotbeds,  the  gardener  can  go  into  his  greenhouse  and  give  the 
plants  the  attention  they  need.  It  is  a  decided  advantage  to  the 
gardener  and  to  the  plants  if  both  can  be  under  the  same  roof  when 
the  weather  is  bad. 

The  advantages  of  hotbeds  and  coldframes,  as  compared  with 
greenhouses,  are  their  cheapness  of  construction  and  cost  of  main- 
tenance, and  the  facility  with  which  they  can  be  thoroughly  venti- 
lated (by  removal  of  the  sash)  when  the  warm  days  of  late  spring 
arrive.  A  spring  crop  of  lettuce  is  more  certain  to  develop  prop- 
erly in  a  coldframe  than  in  a  greenhouse.  On  the  whole  it  may  be 
said  that  each  type  of  glass  structure  has  its  place  in  vegetable 
gardening  operations  and  none  can  be  fully  substituted  for  the 
others. 

CONSTRUCTION    OF    MANURE    HOTBEDS* 

A  manure  hotbed  may  be  made  very  cheaply  by  placing  a 
sash-covered  frame  on  top  of  a  flat  pile  of  fermenting  manure 
(Fig.  34).  However,  such  a  bed  is  badly  exposed  to  winds,  and  is 
less  satisfactory  in  cold  weather  than  a  bed  made  by  placing  the 
frame  above  a  pit  containing  the  manure.  The  pit  may  be  merely 
an  excavation  in  the  ground  or  may  be  walled  up  with  plank, 
or  even  brick  if  a  permanent  bed  is  desired.  The  bed  must  be  in 
a  well-drained  location  if  the  manure  is  placed  in  a  pit;  otherwise 
water  would  likely  seep  into  the  pit  and  interfere  with  the  proper 
fermentation  of  the  manure. 

The  preparation  of  manure  for  a  hotbed  should  begin  at  least 
three  weeks  before  the  hotbed  is  to  be  used.  Fresh  horse  manure 
from  grain-fed  animals  should  be  placed  in  a  compact  pile.     The 

*  Directions  for   the  construction  of  both  manure  and  fire   hotbeds  have 
been  adapted  from  Illinois  Bulletin  No.  144. 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  MANURE  HOTBEDS 


61 


manure  should  contain  a  fair  amount  of  litter  but  should  not  be 
too  strawy.  If  it  is  rather  dry,  it  should  be  moistened  with  water 
as  it  is  being  piled.  As  soon  as  fermentation  has  become  well 
started,  the  manure  should  be  thoroughly  forked  over  and  re- 
piled.  Care  should  "be  taken  to  break  up  all  lumps  and  place  the 
coolest  manure  from  the  outside  of  the  original  pile  in  the  midst 
of  the  new  pile,  to  insure  uniform  fermentation  of  the  entire  mass. 
As  soon  as  the  whole  pile  is  steaming,  the  manure  may  be  placed 
in  the  pit,  or  in  a  flat  pile  if  the  bed  is  to  be  constructed  entirely 


■ 

hi 

- 

■ 

s-7--. 


■m 


Fig.  34. — Simplest  form  of  manur 


tbed.     The  frame  is  placed  on  a  pile  of  fermenting 
manure. 


above  ground.  The  manure  should  be  thoroughly  tramped  as  it 
is  being  piled,  and  care  taken  to  have  it  uniformly  compact  through- 
out the  bed,  so  that  it  will  not  settle  unevenly  and  let  the  soil  sink 
in  spots  after  the  bed  is  in  operation.  A  good  plan  is  to  put  the 
manure  on  in  layers  about  six  inches  deep,  and  tramp  each  layer 
thoroughly  before  putting  on  the  next.  When  the  bed  is  com- 
pleted, the  manure  should  be  about  two  feet  deep.  If  a  pit  has 
been  used,  the  manure  should  extend  approximately  to  the  level 
of  the  ground. 

As  soon  as  the  manure  has  been  placed  in  the  bed,  the  frame 


62 


THE  USE  OF  GLASS 


and  sash  should  be  put  on  to  protect  the  bed  from  rain  or  snow 
and  help  retain  the  heat.  The  soil  in  which  the  plants  are  to  be 
grown  may  be  placed  in  the  bed  at  this  time  or  a  few  days  later, 
but  in  no  case  should  seeds  be  sown  or  plants  set  until  after  the 
violent  heat  following  the  moving  of  the  manure  has  somewhat 
subsided.     Sometimes  this  violent  heating  does  not  become  evi- 


6'- 2 


Fig.   35. — Diagram  of  frame  for  manure  hotbed. 


dent  for  three,  four,  or  even  more  days  after  the  bed  is  made, 
and  a  person  is  inclined  to  think  the  bed  is  not  going  to  heat. 
It  would  be  a  serious  mistake  to  plant  the  bed  at  this  juncture, 
for  if  the  manure  is  of  good  quality  and  has  been  properly  handled, 
the  violent  heating  is  sure  to  occur  and  would  kill  any  seeds  or 
plants  in  the  bed.  Some  persons  favor  putting  in  the  soil  when  the 
bed  is  first  made,  for  the  sake  of  killing  the  weed  seeds  in  the  soil 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  MANURE  HOTBEDS 


63 


by  this  violent  heating.    After  the  bed  has  heated  up,  and  then 
cooled  down  to  85°  F.,  the  seeds  may  safely  be  sown. 

The  hotbed  frame  should  be  twelve  inches  high  in  front  and 
sixteen  or  eighteen  inches  high  at  the  rear,  and  should  face  the 
south  to  get  the  full  benefit  of  the  sun.  Since  most  hotbed  sash 
are  six  feet  long,  the  frame  should  be  six  feet  wide,  outside  measure, 
and  long  enough  to  accommodate  the  number  of  sash  required; 
or  if  a  large  amount  of  hotbed  space  is  required,  it  is  a  common 
practice  to  make  a  series  of  beds  of  four  sash  each.  Since  a  3'  x  6' 
sash  is  often  a  little  over  three  feet  wide,  the  frame  may  need  to 
be  over  twelve  feet  long  to  accommodate  four  sash.  It  is  a  good 
plan  to  measure  the  exact  width  of  the  four  sash  to  be  used  and 
cut  the  lumber  for  the  frame  accordingly.  Iri  making  the  back  of 
the  frame  avoid  having  a  crack  near  the  top  of  the  bed.    If  only 


Fig.  36. — Cross-section  of  simplest  form  of  manure  hotbed. 


a  small  amount  of  hotbed  room  is  needed,  a  bed  may  be  made 
with  only  two,  or  even  one  sash.  Unless  the  hotbed  is  of  the  per- 
manent type,  it  is  advisable  to  have  the  frame  put  together  with 
screws,  so  that  it  may  be  taken  down  at  the  close  of  the  season 
without  splitting  the  lumber.  The  frame  can  be  stored  in  a  small 
space  until  needed  the  next  season.  The  accompanying  diagram 
shows  the  arrangement  of  the  different  parts  of  such  a  frame  made 
for  two  sash,  together  with  enlarged  views  of  the  corners  and  joints 
(Fig.  35). 

With  a  hotbed  frame  made  as  indicated  there  will  be  room  for 
four  inches  of  soil  in  which  to  grow  the  plants,  and  still  leave  eight 
inches  of  space  between  the  soil  and  sash  at  the  front  of  the  bed. 
A  cross-section  of  a  hotbed  of  the  simplest  and  cheapest  type, 
showing  the  location  of  manure,  soil,  and  sash,  is  shown  in  Fig.  36. 


64  THE  USE  OF  GLASS 

CONSTRUCTION   OF   FIRE    HOTBEDS 

The  essential  features  of  a  fire  hotbed  are  a  long  sash-covered 
frame  underlaid  by  two  flues  connected  with  a  fire-pit  at  one  end 
and  chimney  at  the  other.  An  ideal  location  for  a  fire  hotbed  is 
a  gradual  slope  to  the  south  or  east.  Such  a  location  insures  full 
exposure  to  sunlight,  protection  from  cold  winds,  good  draft  for 
the  flues  and  drainage  for  the  fire-pit. 

Fire  hotbeds  differ  somewhat  in  details  of  construction.  The 
method  of  construction  here  described  is  in  common  use  by  truck 
growers  in  southern  Illinois.  An  area  six  feet  wide  and  from  80 
to  100  feet  long  is  marked  off  in  such  a  way  that  one  end  of  the 
bed  will  be  a  few  feet  higher  than  the  other.  A  row  of  posts  is  set 
along  each  side  of  this  area,  those  on  the  north  or  west  side  extend- 
ing eighteen  inches  above  the  level  of  the  ground  and  those  on  the 
south  or  east  side  twelve  inches.  These  posts  must  be  set  about 
two  and  one-half  feet  deep  to  prevent  their  being  heaved  out  by 
frost.  The  distance  between  the  posts  will  depend  upon  the  length 
of  lumber  to  be  used  in  making  the  frame.  For  sixteen-foot  lum- 
ber, the  posts  should  be  placed  five  feet  four  inches  apart. 

After  the  posts  are  set,  boards  are  nailed  onto  the  inside  of 
these  rows  of  posts  to  make  the  walls  of  the  bed.  It  is  well  to 
allow  the  boards  to  extend  two  inches  above  the  tops  of  the  posts, 
so  that  the  latter  will  not  interfere  with  the  sash. 

The  dirt  should  be  dug  out  from  between  the  walls  to  within 
three  inches  of  the  posts  on  either  side.  At  the  upper  end  of  the 
bed  it  is  dug  out  to  the  depth  of  six  inches,  the  depth  gradually 
increasing  until  the  lower  end  of  the  bed  is  reached,  where  it  is 
two  and  one-half  feet.  The  excavation  is  extended  several  feet 
beyond  the  lower  end  of  the  bed.  This  extension  is  made  one 
foot  narrower  and  one  and  one-half  feet  deeper  than  the  bed 
proper.  Six  feet  of  the  upper  part  are  to  be  used  for  the  fire-pit, 
the  lower  part  being  dug  out  for  convenience  in  firing.  The  sides 
of  the  pit  are  walled  up  with  rock  or  brick  to  a  height  of  two  feet 
and  covered  with  broad  flat  rocks  well  supported  by  iron  bars, 
or  the  cover  may  be  entirely  of  old  boiler  iron. 

From  each  side  of  the  back  of  the  fire-pit,  a  trench  twelve 
inches  deep  and  nine  inches  wide  is  dug  diagonally  toward  the 
side  of  the  bed.  When  within  four  inches  of  the  side  of  the  excava- 
tion the  direction  is  changed  and  the  trench  cut  parallel  with  the 
side  of  the  bed.  These  trenches  are  covered  closely  with  flat 
stones  to  prevent  dirt  from  filling  them.    The  dirt  which  is  first 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  FIRE  HOTBEDS  65 

filled  in  over  these  stones  is  well  packed  to  prevent  smoke  from 
going  through  into  the  dirt  of  the  bed.  Thus,  flues  are  made  which 
conduct  the  heat  and  smoke  under  the  bed  to  the  chimneys  at 
the  upper  end  (Fig.  37). 

In  localities  where  rock  is  not  easily  obtained,  sewer  tiles, 
four  to  six  inches  in  diameter,  are  sometimes  used  for  flues  in  place 
of  the  rock-covered  flues  above  described.  In  this  case  it  is  unneces- 
sary to  excavate  the  full  width  of  the  bed,  since  the  tile  can  be 
placed  in  the  bottom  of  trenches  dug  to  the  proper  depth. 

Chimneys  for  the  upper  ends  of  the  flues  are  made  by  nailing 
together  four  ten-inch  boards.  The  board  on  the  side  toward  the 
flue  should  be  a  foot  shorter  than  the  other  three  so  as  to  allow 
an  opening  into  the  chimney. 

As  the  flues  are  finished,  most  of  the  dirt  which  was  dug  out 
is  shoveled  back  into  the  bed,  filling  it  to  the  original  level  or  per- 
haps two  inches  higher.  Boards  are  nailed  across  the  ends 
of  the  bed.  The  fire-pit  is  covered  about  two  feet  deep 
and  the  remainder  of  the  dirt  is  banked  against  the  out- 


Longitudinal  section  of  fire  hotbed. 


side  of  the  walls  of  the  bed.  Additional  dirt  should  be  piled 
against  the  walls  to  bank  them  to  the  top,  for  the  severe  weather 
of  February  and  March  will  make  it  necessary  to  protect  the 
plants  as  much  as  possible. 

To  be  in  readiness  for  use  in  the  spring  the  bed  should  be  com- 
pleted in  the  fall,  and  the  soil  put  in  for  growing  the  plants.  This 
should  be  about  four  inches  deep.  Soil  rich  in  humus  and  rela- 
tively free  from  weed  seeds  is  secured.  This  is  usually  enriched 
with  well-rotted  manure  in  the  proportion  of  one  load  of  manure 
to  ten  loads  of  soil.  After  the  soil  is  put  in,  the  bed  is  left  open  to 
the  weather  until  late  in  December,  when  it  is  covered  with  sash 
to  keep  out  rain  and  snow. 

The  sash  are  supported  by  cross-bars  resting  on  the  walls  of 

the  bed.     Each  cross-bar  is  made  by  nailing  together  two  strips 

of  wood,  one  of  which  is  1"  x  3"  and  just  long  enough  to  fit 

loosely  between  the  walls  of  the  bed,  and  the  other  is  1"  x  2"  and 

5 


66  THE  USE  OF  GLASS 

as  long  as  the  sash,  so  that  the  ends  may  rest  upon  the  sides  of 
the  bed.  These  supporting  strips  afford  a  base  on  which  to  slide 
the  sash  in  opening  the  bed,  and  also  insure  good  connections 
between  adjoining  sash. 

About  a  week  before  seeds  are  to  be  planted,  a  fire  is  started 
in  the  pit  in  order  to  warm  the  soil  in  the  bed  and  put  it  in  condi- 
tion for  working.  A  hot  fire  is  required  for  several  days  to  get  the 
bed  into  good  condition  for  early  planting,  but  after  the  soil  has  once 
become  warm  much  less  fuel  is  needed  to  keep  up  sufficient  heat. 

CONSTRUCTION  OF  COLDFRAMES 

The  construction  of  a  coldframe  is  similar  to  that  of  a  manure 
hotbed,  except  that  the  frame  is  placed  directly  upon  the  ground 


Fig.  38. — Cloth-covered  coldframe  eighty-four  feet  long. 

instead  of  being  upon  a  pile  of  manure  or  over  a  pit  containing 
manure.  For  use  early  in  the  season,  the  sides  of  the  coldframe 
are  well  banked  with  manure.  For  hardening-off  plants  late  in 
the  season,  such  banking  is  unnecessary.  Temporary  coldframes 
may  be  made  by  setting  up  two  parallel  lines  of  plank,  six  feet 
apart,  held  in  place  by  stakes  driven  into  the  ground.  One  line 
should  be  of  wider  plank  than  the  other  to  provide  for  slope. 
Boards  are  nailed  across  the  ends  and  the  top  is  covered  with  sash 
or  cotton  cloth.  If  sash  is  used,  cross-bars  may  be  omitted  from  a 
temporary  frame  of  this  sort. 

A  cloth  cover  is  sometimes  used.    If  so,  it  must  be  supported 
by  cross-bars  at  intervals  of  about  four  feet.    For  making  a  cloth 


CARE  OF  PLANTS  UNDER  GLASS  67 

cover,  two  widths  of  heavy  unbleached  muslin  are  sewed  together. 
One  edge  of  the  cover  is  nailed  to  the  top  of  the  plank  forming  the 
upper  side  of  the  frame,  while  the  other  edge  is  fastened  to  a  roller 
made  by  nailing  together  twol"  x  2 "  strips  of  wood  in  such  a 
way  that  the  strips  break  joints  and  form  a  continuous  roller  as 
long  as  the  frame,  except  in  the  case  of  frames  over  sixty  feet  long 
(Fig.  38),  when  the  cover  may  be  made  in  sections  for  convenience 
in  handling.  The  cover  must  be  of  such  a  width  that  when  put 
over  the  frame  the  cloth  will  come  a  little  beyond  the  top  of  the 
front  plank.  The  weight  of  the  roller  will  then  hold  the  cover  in 
place. 

CARE   OF   PLANTS    UNDER   GLASS 

The  first  essential  in  the  care  of  hotbeds,  coldframes  and  green- 
houses is  the  maintenance  of  the  proper  temperature  for  the  wel- 
fare of  the  plants.  In  the  greenhouse  the  temperature  is  controlled 
mainly  by  turning  on  or  cutting  off  heating  pipes,  though  venti- 
lation is  also  used  as  a  means  of  controlling  the  temperature, 
especially  late  in  the  spring.  Shading  of  the  glass  may  also  be 
resorted  to  when  the  weather  becomes  warm.  In  a  fire  hotbed, 
the  temperature  is  regulated  by  the  extent  of  firing  and  also  by 
ventilation.  In  manure  hotbeds  and  in  coldframes  the  supply 
of  heat  cannot  be  changed  at  the  will  of  the  operator.  However, 
the  heat  can  be  conserved  or  dissipated  according  to  the  needs  of 
the  plants  and  the  condition  of  the  weather.  On  cold  nights  heat  is 
conserved  by  covering  the  sash  with  mats,  shutters,  straw  or  ma- 
nure. During  the  day  the  sash  may  be  raised  to  let  out  surplus  heat. 

The  object  of  ventilation,  by  opening  the  ventilators  of  green- 
houses or  raising  the  sash  of  hotbeds  and  coldframes,  is  not  merely 
to  assist  in  the  control  of  the  temperature.  It  is  even  more  im- 
portant for  changing  the  air  in  the  house  or  bed.  Fresh  air  should 
be  admitted  every  day.  If  the  weather  will  permit,  the  sash  or 
ventilators  should  be  left  slightly  open  for  several  hours  in  the 
middle  of  the  day.  Hotbeds  require  even  more  attention  to  venti- 
lation than  greenhouses,  because  the  volume  of  air  is  so  much 
smaller.  When  the  weather  is  so  cold  and  windy  that  the  hotbed 
cannot  be  left  open  for  any  great  length  of  time,  it  may  be  opened 
slightly  for  a  few  minutes  two  or  three  times  during  the  day,  and 
thus  a  change  of  air  secured.  This  assists  in  drying  out  the  bed 
and  preventing  the  damping-off  of  seedlings.  Plants  grown  with- 
out sufficient  ventilation  are  likely  to  be  weak,  spindling  and  sappy. 


68  THE  USE  OF  GLASS 

The  watering  of  plants  under  glass  should  be  carefully  done. 
Water  should  be  applied  only  as  frequently  as  is  necessary  to 
keep  the  plants  growing  properly;  but  whenever  Avater  is  applied 
it  should  be  put  on  in  sufficient  quantity  to  soak  well  down  to 
the  roots  of  the  plants.  Infrequent,  heavy  waterings  are  better 
than  frequent,  light  waterings.  The  frequency  of  watering  re- 
quired will  depend  greatly  upon  the  amount  of  sunshine  and  the 
humidity  of  the  atmosphere.  In  damp,  dark  weather,  watering 
should  be  withheld  as  much  as  possible  in  order  to  avoid  danger 
of  damping-off  and  other  fungous  troubles.  Care  should  be  exer- 
cised to  have  the  foliage  of  the  plants  dry  at  night.  It  is  also  con- 
sidered better  to  apply  water  to  plants  under  glass  when  the 
temperature  is  rising  rather  than  when  it  is  falling.  Therefore 
watering  in  greenhouses  and  hotbeds  should  usually  be  done  in 
the  morning  rather  than  the  afternoon,  especially  in  winter 
weather. 

Tillage  of  Plants  under  Glass. — Plants  growing  under  glass 
respond  to  tillage  the  same  as  plants  outside.  The  repeated  water- 
ing packs  the  soil,  and  it  should  be  loosened  up.  Tillage  with 
hand  weeders  and  similar  tools  should  be  given  at  least  once  a 
week  to  all  plants  that  are  planted  in  such  a  way  that  tillage  is 
feasible.  Of  course,  seedlings  growing  thickly  in  flats,  from  broad- 
cast seeding,  could  not  very  well  be  tilled. 

Shifting  Young  Plants. — Young  plants  started  under  glass  for 
later  transplanting  often  require  one  or  two  shiftings  before  they 
are  ready  for  the  final  transplanting  to  the  field.  If  the  seeds  have 
been  sown  in  flats,  the  young  seedlings,  as  soon  as  they  are  large 
enough  to  handle,  may  be  shifted  to  other  flats  or  to  small  pots. 
This  gives  them  space  to  develop  into  strong,  stocky  plants. 
The  more  side  light  they  can  secure,  by  reason  of  their  being  far 
apart,  the  stockier  they  will  be.  This  is  the  reason  for  making  the 
second  shift  and  allowing  an  abundance  of  room  between  plants 
at  this  shift.  Sometimes,  instead  of  being  placed  in  flats  or  pots, 
the  young  seedlings  are  set  directly  into  the  soil  of  a  hotbed  or 
coldframe.  Under  the  controlled  moisture  conditions  there  is 
little  danger  of  losing  any  of  the  plants. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  are  the  three  kinds  of  glass  structures  used  in  vegetable  growing? 

2.  What  are  the  uses  and  limitations  of  coldframes? 

3.  What  cheaper  covering  is  sometimes  substituted  for  glass  on  coldframes? 


QUESTIONS  69 

4.  How  does  a  hotbed  differ  from  a  coldframe? 

5.  What  is  the  most  common  source  of  heat  for  hotbeds? 

6.  What  other  means  of  heating  hotbeds  are  sometimes  employed? 

7.  Compare  coldframes,  manure  hotbeds  and  fire  hotbeds  in  reference  to 

their  suitability  for  starting  plants  in  cold  weather. 

8.  What  points  of  advantage  have  greenhouses  over  all  other  glass  structures? 

9.  Compare  the  two  types  of  manure  hotbeds. 

10.  Describe  the  preparation  of  manure  for  hotbeds. 

11.  How  soon  after  a  manure  hotbed  is  made,  may  seed  safely  be  planted  in  it? 

12.  Describe  the  construction  of  the  frame  for  a  manure  hotbed. 

13.  Describe  the  method  of  constructing  a  fire  hotbed. 

14.  Describe  the  construction  of  a  cloth-covered  coldframe. 

15.  How  may  the  temperature  be  controlled  in  various  kinds  of  glass  struc- 

tures? 

16.  What  are  the  objects  of  ventilation  in  greenhouse  and  hotbed  management? 

17.  Give  directions  for  the  watering  of  plants  under  glass. 

18.  Can  you  describe  the  special  structure  of  hotbeds,  coldframes,  or  green- 

houses in  your  vicinity? 


CHAPTER  X 
THE  PREPARATION  OF  SOIL  FOR  PLANTING 

The  first  step  in  the  preparation  of  land  for  the  planting  of 
vegetables  is  a  thorough  breaking  up  of  the  soil  to  a  depth  of  from 
four  to  ten  inches,  depending  upon  the  nature  of  the  soil  and  the 
crop  to  be  planted.  The  principal  means  of  breaking  up  the  soil 
is  plowing,  though  it  is  often  a  decided  advantage  to  disk  (Fig.  39) 
the  land  before  plowing  in  order  that  there  may  be  finely  pulverized 
soil  at  the  bottom  of  the  furrow. 

Advantages  of  Fall  Plowing. — For  the  early  spring  plantings  of 
vegetable  crops  it  is  advisable  to  have  the  ground  plowed  the  pre- 
ceding fall.  This  facilitates  early  planting,  for  plowed  ground  dries 
out  earlier  in  spring  than  unplowed,  and  also  no  time  is  lost  in 
plowing  after  the  soil  has  reached  workable  condition.  It  often 
happens  that  early  in  the  spring  when  the  cool  season  crops  should 
be  planted,  the  soil  remains  in  ideal  condition  for  working  only 
a  brief  period,  and  then  becomes  so  thoroughly  wet  by  copious 
rains  that  further  garden  work  is  precluded  for  two  or  three  weeks. 
If  the  manuring  and  plowing  have  been  done  in  the  fall,  it  is  often 
possible  to  plant  the  early  vegetables  in  the  brief  period  during 
which  the  soil  is  fit  to  work,  while  otherwise  this  entire  period 
might  be  expended  in  making  preparations,  and  the  actual  planting 
necessarily  deferred  until  the  next  time  the  soil  is  dry.  Land  that 
lies  rather  flat  should  be  plowed  in  very  narrow  lands  with  deep 
furrows  between,  if  desired  for  early  planting. 

If  the  land  has  been  manured  and  plowed  in  the  fall,  and  is 
worked  at  the  proper  time  in  the  spring,  very  little  labor  is  neces- 
sary in  the  preparation  of  a  seed-bed  for  the  early  planting.  Soil 
containing  sufficient  humus  to  grow  vegetable  crops  advantage- 
ously can  be  fitted  for  planting  without  the  use  of  hand  tools,  if 
the  precaution  is  taken  to  work  it  at  the  exact  time  it  reaches  the 
right  degree  of  dryness.  It  will  then  crumble  readily,  and  a  seed 
bed  can  be  prepared  by  the  use  of  a  disk,  harrow  and  planker 
(Figs.  39,  40  and  41). 

How  to  Determine  when  the  Soil  is  in  Workable  Condition. — 
To  determine  when  the  land  has  reached  the  right  stage  of  dryness 
70 


TREATMENT  OF  UNPLANTED  LAND 


71 


for  working  in  the  spring,  a  small  portion  of  the  soil  should  be 
taken  in  one  hand  and  pressed  into  a  ball.  When  the  fingers  are 
relaxed,  the  mass  of  soil  should  retain  its  shape  and  show  the  marks 
of  the  fingers,  but  should  readily  crumble  when  rubbed  lightly 
between  the  thumb  and  finger,  and  should  not  stick  to  the  hand. 
Treatment  of  Unplanted  Land  to  Conserve  Moisture. — For  later 
crops  the  land  should  be  plowed  fairly  early  in  the  spring  while 
it  is  still  well  supplied  with  moisture,  and  should  be  harrowed  the 
same  day  it  is  plowed,  in  order  to  break  up  the  surface  lumps 


Fig.   39. — Disk  harrow:     an  implement  used   for  surface 
tillage  in  preparing  land  for  vegetables. 

before  they  become  hard,  and  also  to  create  a  mulch  that  will 
conserve  moisture  in  the  lower  layers  of  the  soil.  At  frequent 
intervals  and  before  a  crust  forms  after  each  rain,  the  ground 
should  be  disked  or  harrowed,  and  thus  kept  in  good  tilth  until 
the  time  it  is  needed  for  planting.  It  will  then  be  an  easy  matter 
to  finish  the  preparation  of  the  seed-bed  with  harrow  and  planker. 
In  a  small  home  garden,  where  there  may  be  insufficient  space 
for  working  with  horse  tools,  the  same  principles  of  preparation 
apply.  To  facilitate  early  planting  it  is  an  advantage  to  work 
up  the  ground  roughly  but  deeply  in  the  fall.  Fall  worked  ground 
can  be  fitted  for  early  planting  by  the  use  of  a  hoe  and  rake.  Land 
for  later  planting  should  be  spaded  in  early  spring  while  it  is  in 


72  THE  PREPARATION  OF  SOIL  FOR  PLANTING 

good  workable  condition,  and  kept  free  from  weeds  and  crust 

formation  by  hoeing  and  raking  the  surface  at  frequent  intervals. 

Whether  prepared  by  horse  or  hand  tools,  the  soil  should  be 

fine  to  a  considerable  depth  and  preferably  moist  clear  to  the 


Fig.  40. — Spike  tooth  harrow. 


surface  at  the  time  the  seeds  are  planted.  Thorough  preparation 
of  the  soil  before  planting  is  a  very  important  factor  in  the  pro- 
duction of  any  crop. 


Fig.  41.— Planker. 

In  preparing  soil  for  planting  seeds  in  greenhouse  flats, 
pots,  or  boxes,  it  is  advisable  to  sift  the  soil  through  a  screen  to 
make  it  uniformly  fine  throughout.  Unless  the  soil  already  con- 
tains a  high  percentage  of  sand,  it  is  customary  to  add  considerable 
sand  in  preparing  it  for  seed  boxes.    This  makes  the  soil  less  likely 


QUESTIONS  73 

to  pack  under  repeated  watering,  affords  better  drainage  and  re- 
duces the  danger  of  damping-off.  In  order  that  the  seedlings  may 
make  a  vigorous  growth,  rotted  manure  also  is  often  added  in 
preparing  soil  for  seed  flats;  though  since  the  manure  increases 
the  danger  from  damping-off,  some  growers  omit  the  manure  from 
the  seed  flats,  but  use  it  in  large  amounts  in  the  soil  which  is  to 
receive  the  seedlings  at  the  first  shift.  A  very  good  formula  for 
preparing  a  soil  for  planting  seeds 
in  greenhouse  flats — unless  damp- 
ing-off is  feared — and  for  growing 
young  seedlings  after  the  first  shift, 
is  four  parts  rich  garden  loam  or  rot- 
ted sod,  two  parts  fine,  thoroughly 
rotted  manure  and  one  part  sand. 
All  the  ingredients  should  be  sifted, 
and  thoroughly  mixed  together  by 
shoveling.  If  the  soil  is  too  dry, 
water  may  be  sprinkled  on  repeat- 
edly during  the  mixing,  until  it  is  of 
the  right  consistency.    The  fineness  FlG  42._s0ii  sieve. 

of  the  screen  (Fig.  42)  to  be  used 

in  sifting  the  soil  will  depend  upon  the  condition  of  the  soil  and 
the  kind  of  seed  to  be  planted.  For  ordinary  purposes  a  three- 
quarter-inch  screen  for  the  manure,  a  half-inch  screen  for  the 
loam,  and  a  quarter-inch  screen  for  the  sand,  will  be  satisfactory; 
but  for  some  fine  seeds  a  quarter  or  even  one-eighth-inch  screen 
may  be  used  for  all  ingredients.  When  a  soil  is  thus  carefully  pre- 
pared the  plant  roots  have  no  difficulty  in  reaching  every  part 
of  it,  and  a  small  mass  of  soil  is  capable  of  supporting  a  large 
amount  of  plant  life. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  is  the  first  operation  in  the  preparation  of  soil  for  planting? 

2.  When  should  the  ground  be  plowed  for  early  spring  planting? 

3.  What  advantages  has  fall  over  spring  plowing  for  early  garden  planting? 

4.  How  may  a  seed-bed  for  vegetables  be  prepared  without  the  use  of  hand  tools? 

5.  Describe  a  method  of  determining  when  the  soil  has  reached  workable 

condition  in  spring. 

6.  Describe  the  proper  method  of  treating  land  to  conserve  moisture  for  late 

spring  planting. 

7.  How  may  soil  be  prepared  for  planting  small  seeds  in  greenhouse  flats  or 

boxes? 

8.  Can  you  describe  bad  examples  of  soil  preparation  which  you  have  wit- 


CHAPTER  XI 

THE  PLANTING  OF  SEEDS 

In  order  that  seeds  may  germinate  it  is  necessary  that  certain 
conditions  be  met.  In  the  first  place,  the  seed  must  be  viable, 
that  is,  it  must  possess  strong  germinative  power.  No  matter 
how  carefully  all  other  conditions  are  met,  if  the  seed  itself  is 
weak  or  dead,  satisfactory  germination  cannot  take  place.  The 
precautions  necessary  to  the  producing  of  good  viable  seed  have 
already  been  discussed  in  Chapter  IV.  Other  conditions  essential 
to  germination  are  the  presence  of  moisture  and  oxygen,  and  the 
proper  temperature  for  the  kind  of  seed  in  question. 

Moisture  is  necessary  because  the  absorption  of  water  is  the 
first  stage  in  the  process  of  germination.  In  the  absence  of  mois- 
ture, seeds  will  remain  dormant  indefinitely  regardless  of  the 
presence  of  all  other  factors  essential  to  germination.  It  often 
happens  that  seed  improperly  planted  in  dry  soil  will  remain  inac- 
tive for  weeks,  and  then  sprout  after  a  heavy  rain.  To  insure 
prompt  germination,  an  adequate  supply  of  moisture  must  be 
maintained  in  direct  contact  with  the  seed.  This  is  accom- 
plished by  planting  the  seed  in  fine,  moist  soil,  and  firming  the 
soil  sufficiently  to  bring  the  soil  particles  in  close  contact  with  the 
seed  on  all  sides.  Moisture  is  then  carried  to  the  seed  by  capillary 
action,  and  its  needs  thus  supplied.  Provision  must  be  made  for 
a  continuation  of  the  water  supply  until  the  seed  has  germinated 
and  the  plantlet  become  well  established.  In  outdoor  culture, 
in  the  case  of  seeds  that  can  be  planted  deep,  there  is  little  danger 
of  the  soil  becoming  too  dry  before  germination  is  completed  if  it 
was  sufficiently  moist  at  the  time  the  planting  was  done.  However, 
it  is  a  wise  precaution  to  scarify  the  surface  of  the  soil  over  deep- 
planted  seeds  and  thus  provide  a  mulch  for  conserving  the  moisture 
in  the  layer  of  soil  containing  the  seeds.  This  insures  prompt 
germination  and  an  abundance  of  moisture  for  the  seedlings. 

If  the  loose  top  layer  of  soil  is  dry  at  the  time  small  seeds  are 
to  be  planted,  but  there  is  plenty  of  moisture  below,  very  thorough 
firming  of  the  soil  over  the  seeds  may  establish  sufficient  capillary 
action  to  bring  the  moisture  to  the  seed  and  effect  germination. 
However,  the  deeper  the  layer  of  dry  soil  and  the  shallower  the 
74 


DEPTH  OF  PLANTING  75 

seeds  must  be  planted,  the  more  difficult  and  uncertain  is  this 
method  of  attempting  to  secure  moisture  for  the  germination  of 
seeds.  The  much  more  certain  way  of  securing  germination  is  to 
plant  only  when  the  seeds  can  be  planted  in  direct  contact  with 
moist  soil. 

In  the  carefully  prepared  soil  used  in  a  greenhouse  or  a  hotbed 
and  with  the  facilities  for  artificial  watering,  there  is  no  difficulty 
in  maintaining  an  abundant  supply  of  moisture  in  contact  with 
any  seeds  that  may  be  sown  under  these  conditions. 

Relation  of  Drainage  to  Germination. — Since  seeds  will  not 
germinate  without  the  presence  of  oxygen,  it  is  essential  that 
provision  be  made  for  the  rapid  draining  away  of  any  surplus 
water  that  may  fall  as  rain  or  be  applied  artificially;  for  if  the  soil 
becomes  completely  saturated  with  water  and  remains  in  that 
condition,  there  will  be  no  room  for  air,  and  hence  no  oxygen 
available  to  the  germinating  seeds.  Soils  that  are  naturally  well 
drained  or  artificially  drained  present  conditions  more  favorable 
to  the  germination  of  seeds  than  do  poorly  drained  soils.  In  the 
greenhouse,  seed  flats  and  flower  pots  have  holes  in  the  bottom 
to  facilitate  drainage. 

Different  seeds  germinate  best  at  different  temperatures,  but 
in  general  most  seeds  germinate  well  at  a  temperature  closely 
corresponding  to  that  at  which  the  plants  thrive  after  they  have 
become  established.  Thus,  seeds  of  the  cool  season  crops  will 
germinate  at  a  much  lower  temperature  than  those  of  the  warm 
season  crops.  Seeds  of  the  warm  season  crops,  if  planted  in  moist 
soil  when  the  temperature  is  low,  are  likely  to  rot  instead  of 
sprouting.  Some  of  the  cool  season  crops  will  germinate  readily 
at  a  temperature  of  50°  to  60°  F.,  while  a  temperature  of  70°  to 
80°  is  required  for  rapid  germination  of  the  warm  season  crops. 

In  outdoor  culture,  the  proper  temperature  for  the  germination 
of  the  seeds  is  secured  by  regulating  the  time  of  planting  the  various 
crops  to  meet  their  respective  demands.  Under  glass,  the  tem- 
perature is  regulated  by  the  amount  of  piping  in  the  greenhouse, 
the  extent  of  firing  in  a  flue-heated  hotbed,  and  the  amount  and 
quality  of  manure  used  in  making  a  manure  hotbed. 

DEPTH   OF   PLANTING 

Seeds  should  be  planted  deep  enough  to  be  well  supplied  with 
moisture,  yet  shallow  enough  for  the  seedlings  to  be  able  to  push 
their  way  to  the  surface.     Three  factors  chiefly  determine  the 


76  THE  PLANTING  OF  SEEDS 

exact  depth  of  planting  in  any  given  case:  The  seed,  the  soil, 
the  season. 

Size  and  Structure  of  Seed. — In  general,  the  seedlings  of 
vegetables  having  large  seeds  have  greater  power  to  push  their 
way  to  the  surface  of  the  soil  than  seedlings  of  vegetables  having 
small  seeds.  The  structure  of  the  seed  and  seedling,  irrespective 
of  size,  also  has  some  influence  upon  the  ability  of  the  seedling 
to  reach  the  surface.  However,  in  general,  large  seeds  can  safely 
be  planted  deeper  than  small  seeds. 

The  type  and  condition  of  the  soil  also  influence  the  depth  of 
planting.  It  is  necessary  to  plant  seeds  deeper  in  a  sandy  than  in 
a  clayey  soil  in  order  to  insure  sufficient  moisture.  The  converse 
also  is  true:  It  is  necessary  to  plant  seeds  shallower  in  a  clayey 
than  in  a  sandy  soil,  in  order  that  the  seedlings  may  reach  the 
surface.  A  sandy  soil  is  loose  and  open  and  the  surface  does  not 
bake  into  a  crust  following  a  rain  subsequent  to  planting,  as  is 
the  case  with  a  clayey  soil.  If  a  heavy  rain  falls  soon  after  the 
planting  of  small  seeds  in  a  clayey  soil,  unless  the  seeds  are  close 
enough  to  the  surface  so  that  the  seedlings  can  reach  the  surface 
before  the  crust  forms,  they  are  likely  not  to  get  through  until 
another  rain  softens  the  crust.  If  that  is  too  long  delayed  they 
may  perish  in  the  meantime.  In  general,  the  looser  and  the  more 
friable  the  soil,  whether  this  condition  is  due  to  the  presence  of 
sand  or  of  humus,  the  deeper  the  seeds  may  be  planted;  and  the 
deeper  they  are  planted  the  surer  they  are  of  having  plenty  of 
moisture  for  germination. 

The  more  thoroughly  prepared  the  seed-bed,  the  shallower  it 
is  possible  to  plant  seeds  and  yet  have  them  supplied  with  suffi- 
cient moisture  for  germination.  This  is  because  capillary  action 
is  much  more  perfect  in  such  a  seed-bed.  In  a  poorly  prepared 
seed-bed  on  clayey  ground,  the  soil  is  sometimes  so  lumpy  that  it 
is  necessary  to  plant  the  seed  so  deep  in  order  to  secure  moisture 
that,  in  the  event  of  subsequent  rains  and  crust  formation,  the 
seedlings  are  unable  to  penetrate  to  the  surface.  The  seed-bed 
in  clayey  soil  should  be  sufficiently  well  prepared  to  make  shallow 
planting  possible. 

Under  greenhouse  conditions  it  is  possible  to  plant  seeds  very 
shallow,  since  the  soil  of  the  seed-bed  can  be  sifted  and  the  moisture 
supply  is  under  complete  control.  Water  can  be  applied  whenever 
necessary  and  evaporation  prevented  by  covering  the  seed  flat 
with  a  newspaper  or  a  pane  of  glass.    It  is  thus  possible  to  grow 


DISTANCE  OF  PLANTING  77 

plants  of  species  in  which  the  seeds  are  very  small  and  the  seedlings 
delicate. 

Influence  of  Season  on  Depth  of  Planting. — The  same  kinds 
of  seeds  may  be  planted  at  different  depths  in  different  seasons 
of  the  year.  Early  in  the  spring,  when  the  soil  is  barely  dry  enough 
to  work  and  is  almost  too  cold  for  the  germination  of  .seeds,  it  is 
driest  and  warmest  close  to  the  surface.  There  is  little  danger 
of  its  drying  out  too  much  before  the  seeds  germinate.  Under 
these  conditions  shallow  planting  is  advisable.  On  the  other  hand, 
in  midsummer,  when  evaporation  is  rapid  and  the  heat  intense, 
the  conditions  of  both  moisture  and  temperature  are  likely  to  be 
more  favorable  for  germination  at  a  considerable  depth  below 
the  surface.  Under  such  conditions  the  seeds  should  be  planted 
as  deeply  as  the  strength  of  the  seedlings  will  permit. 

Sometimes  a  general  rule  is  given  to  the  effect  that  the  depth 
of  planting  should  be  four  times  the  diameter  of  the  seed.  This 
is  a  satisfactory  depth  under  greenhouse  conditions;  but  out-of- 
doors  it  is  difficult  to  maintain  sufficient  moisture  for  the  seed  so 
close  to  the  surface  of  the  soil.  In  general  practice  in  a  humid 
climate,  in  soils  of  medium  rather  than  extremely  light  or  extremely 
heavy  texture,  it  is  customary  to  plant  small  seeds,  like  lettuce, 
onions,  carrots,  parsnips,  radishes  and  spinach,  from  one-half  to 
three-quarters  of  an  inch  deep,  at  the  normal  time  for  planting 
these  crops  in  spring.  Large  seeds,  like  beans  and  corn,  are  planted 
from  one  to  three  inches  deep,  depending  upon  the  amount  of 
moisture  in  the  soil  and  the  season  of  the  year. 

DISTANCE   OF   PLANTING 

The  distances  at  which  seeds  shall  be  planted  are  determined 
by  two  factors:  The  amount  of  space  needed  by  each  plant  for 
normal  development  during  the  time  it  is  expected  to  occupy  the 
given  location,  and  the  amount  of  space  needed  to  properly  care 
for  the  plants.  The  former  is  determined  chiefly  by  the  size  of 
the  plants  at  maturity  if  they  are  not  to  be  transplanted,  or  their 
size  at  the  time  of  the  first  shift  if  they  are  to  be  transplanted. 
The  latter  is  determined  chiefly  by  the  method  of  tillage  to  be 
employed,  especially  by  the  kind  of  tools  to  be  used  and  the  power 
by  which  they  are  to  be  operated. 

Space  for  Tillage. — Plants  growing  on  a  narrow  greenhouse 
bench,  the  center  of  which  can  be  reached  by  a  man  standing  at 
either  side,  can  be  tilled  with  hand  weeders,  or  similar  tools,  and 


78  THE  PLANTING  OF  SEEDS 

it  is  not  necessary  that  there  be  sufficient  distance  between  the 
rows  for  the  gardener  to  place  his  feet,  as  is  necessary  in  outdoor 
gardening  unless  the  vegetables  are  planted  in  very  narrow  beds. 

If  a  wheel  hoe  is  to  be  used  in  the  tillage  of  a  garden,  the  rows 
of  vegetables  must  be  far  enough  apart  to  permit  the  free  passage 
of  the  tool  as  well  as  the  operator's  feet.  Twelve  inches  between 
the  rows  is  a  satisfactory  distance  for  planting  such  crops  as  onions, 
carrots,  spinach,  lettuce,  early  beets  and  other  small  vegetables 
of  which  the  seed  is  sown  in  drills. 

If  horse  tools  are  to  be  used  in  the  tillage  of  these  crops,  more 
space  is  needed  between  the  rows.  It  is  seldom  wise  to  plant 
any  crops  closer  than  two  feet  between  the  rows,  if  the  tillage  is 
to  be  done  by  horse  power,  though  some  gardeners  who  have 
small,  well-trained  horses  or  mules  are  able  to  cultivate  between 
rows  planted  as  close  as  twenty  inches  apart.  Corn,  melons  and 
squashes  require  much  more  space,  both  for  the  proper  development 
of  the  plants  and  for  convenience  in  tillage  and  harvesting.  Water- 
melons and  winter  squash  require  more  space  than  any  other  vege- 
tables and  are  often  planted  ten  to  twelve  feet  apart  each  way. 

Plants  that  are  to  occupy  a  given  location  a  very  short  time, 
under  conditions  where  tillage  is  unnecessary  for  the  maintenance 
of  moisture  and  where  the  seed-bed  has  been  very  thoroughly 
prepared  previous  to  planting,  may  need  no  tillage,  and  hence 
the  seed  may  be  sown  broadcast.  This  is  often  done  in  the  case 
of  seeds  sown  in  flats  in  the  greenhouse,  where  artificial  watering 
can  be  practiced,  or  in  the  case  of  radishes  or  leaf  lettuce  sown  in 
moist  ground  in  early  spring,  or  spinach  sown  during  the  rainy 
season  of  autumn. 

The  size  of  the  plants  in  the  same  species  may  differ  widely 
with  different  varieties,  and  hence  necessitates  a  variation  in  dis- 
tance of  planting.  Summer  varieties  of  radishes  make  much 
more  foliage  than  early  spring  varieties  and  hence  need  more 
room.  Dwarf  peas  may  be  planted  much  closer  than  tall  peas, 
dwarf  early  sweet  corn  closer  than  tall  growing  late  varieties. 
The  size  to  which  a  plant  of  the  same  variety  will  grow  also  varies 
with  the  soil  and  season.  Rich  soils  are  favorable  to  a  luxuriant 
growth  of  foliage,  and  hence  may  necessitate  wider  planting  than 
is  ample  on  poorer  soils.  Some  plants  started  late  in  the  season 
make  a  much  smaller  growth  than  those  of  the  same  variety 
planted  early.  This  is  true  of  peas,  kale,  lettuce  and  other  cool 
season  crops.     The  late  plantings  are  likely  to  be  overtaken  by 


THICKNESS  OP  SEEDING  79 

hot,  dry  weather  and  checked  in  their  growth.  Even  warm  season 
crops,  like  muskmelons,  make  a  much  smaller  vine  growth  in  a 
dry  than  in  a  wet  season.  Since,  however,  it  is  impossible  to  fore- 
cast the  season  at  planting  time,  it  is  wise  to  plant  at  distances 
that  will  allow  sufficient  space  for  the  plants  to  develop  even  if 
the  season  should  be  wet  and  the  growth  rampant.  There  is 
usually  little  advantage  to  be  gained  by  unduly  crowding  plants 
of  any  kind. 

THICKNESS   OF   SEEDING 

The  thickness  of  sowing  seeds  in  the  row  or  the  number  of 
seeds  planted  per  hill  depends  upon  whether  or  not  the  plants 
are  to  be  thinned.  The  advantage  of  thick  seeding  is  that  there 
is  more  certainty  of  securing  a  full  stand  In  spite  of  failure  of 
some  of  the  seeds  or  unfavorable  soil  conditions.  A  mass  of 
seedlings  close  together  can  break  through  a  soil  crust  that  could 
not  be  penetrated  by  a  single  seedling.  It  was  formerly  the 
practice  to  sow  a  large  number  of  seeds  in  the  hope  that  some 
might  find  conditions  favorable  for  germination ;  and  then,  if  the 
stand  was  too  thick  in  places,  to  thin  the  seedlings.  Thick  seeding 
is  still  permissible  where  small  areas  are  planted;  but  in  commercial 
operations  the  labor  of  thinning  becomes  an  important  item,  and  it 
is  more  economical  of  seed  and  labor  to  use  only  viable  seeds  and 
so  thoroughly  prepare  the  seed-bed  that,  except  under  abnormal 
weather  conditions,  a  good  stand  will  be  secured  without  the  thick 
seeding  and  consequent  necessity  of  a  large  amount  of  thinning. 

Many  commercial  onion  growers  have  dispensed  with  thinning 
altogether.  They  test  each  lot  of  seed  for  germinative  power, 
and  adjust  their  drills  with  such  extreme  precision  that  the  amount 
of  seed  sown  per  acre  can  be  regulated  almost  to  the  ounce.  Com 
growers  formerly  planted  heavily  and  then  thinned  if  necessary. 
Now  the  practice  is  to  test  and  grade  the  seed  and  regulate  the 
planter  to  drop  the  same  number  of  kernels  per  hill  as  the  number 
of  stalks  desired. 

It  is  true  that  a  more  absolutely  uniform  stand  can  be  secured 
by  thick  planting  and  subsequent  thinning,  and  that  greater 
uniformity  in  the  size  and  shape  of  some  products  (such  as 
onions)  can  be  secured  if  each  plant  is  allotted  a  definite  amount 
of  space,  as  is  possible  only  when  thinning  is  practiced.  How- 
ever, with  proper  care  in  the  preparation  of  the  seed-bed  and 
in  the  seeding,  it  is  possible  to  dispense  with  a  large  amount  of 


80 


THE  PLANTING  OF  SEEDS 


thinning,  though  it  will  probably  always  be  necessary  to  practice 
thick  seeding  in  the  case  of  crops  in  danger  of  excessive  insect 
ravages  in  the  seedling  stage,  such  as  melons,  cucumbers  and 
squashes. 

In  the  case  of  certain  crops,  if  the  seeding  is  fairly  thin,  what- 
ever thinning  is  necessary  may  be  deferred  until  the  plants  are 
large  enough  for  use.  This  practice  is  permissible  only  when  the 
original  stand  is  fairly  thin,  for  crowded  seedlings  do  not  reach 
edible  size  as  soon  as  they  would  if  not  crowded;  and  the  removal 
of  part  of  the  crowded  plants  when  they  are  wanted  for  the  table 
is  likely  to  seriously  disturb  and  impair  the  growth  of  those  that 


Fig.  43. — Sled  marker. 

remain.  Where  the  seeding  has  been  thick,  a  better  plan  is  to 
make  at  least  a  preliminary  thinning  as  early  as  possible,  leaving 
the  plants  perhaps  twice  as  thick  as  they  are  eventually  to  stand; 
and  then  to  pull  out  every  other  plant  after  they  reach  edible 
size.  This  method  of  thinning  is  especially  adapted  to  beets, 
carrots,  lettuce  and  onions  in  the  home  garden. 

METHODS   OF   SOWING   SEEDS 

Seeds  sown  in  drills  may  be  planted  either  by  hand  or  with 
a  garden  seed  drill.  Where  only  a  small  amount  of  seed  of  each 
kind  is  to  be  sown,  the  hand  method  is  usually  employed.  This 
method  involves  four  distinct  operations:    (1)  Making  the  drills, 


METHODS  OF  SOWING  SEEDS 


81 


(2)  dropping  the  seed,  (3)  covering,  and  (4)  firming.  The  drills 
may  be  made  either  with  a  marker  (Fig.  43),  which  makes  three 
or  four  drills  at  a  time,  or  with  the  end  of  a  rake  or  hoe  handle 
drawn  along  a  line  stretched  in  the  desired  position.  For  peas 
or  beans  a  deeper  drill  may  be  made  with  a  hoe  or  the  plow  attach- 
ment of  a  wheel  hoe.    After  the  seed  is  dropped,  usually  by  rolling 


Fig.  44. — Garden  seed  drill  in  operation. 


a  pinch  of  seed  at  a  time  between  the  thumb  and  first  two  fingers, 
it  is  covered  with  a  rake,  or,  in  the  case  of  deep  planting,  with  a 
hoe  or  wheel  hoe.  The  soil  is  firmed  over  the  seed  by  the  use  of 
the  feet,  the  back  of  a  hoe  or  a  garden  roller.  For  seeds  to  be 
planted  in  hills  it  is  customary  to  fine  the  soil  and  make  a  depres- 
sion with  a  hoe  where  each  hill  is  to  stand,  then  to  drop  the  seed, 
and  cover  and  firm  it  with  the  same  implement. 
6 


82  THE  PLANTING  OF  SEEDS 

In  commercial  vegetable  growing,  seeds  sown  in  drills  out-of- 
doors  are  almost  invariably  sown  by  means  of  a  garden  seed  drill 
(Fig.  44).  This  opens  a  furrow,  drops,  covers  and  firms  the  seed, 
and  marks  the  next  row  all  at  one  passage  of  the  implement  across 
the  field.  With  a  machine  of  this  kind,  one  man  can  sow  an  acre  a 
day  in  drills  twelve  inches  apart,  if  the  seed-bed  has  been  carefully 
prepared;  but  unless  the  soil  is  fine  and  the  surface  fairly  even  the 
seed  drill  will  not  do  satisfactory  work.  However,  unless  the  seed- 
bed is  in  good  enough  condition  for  the  seed  drill  to  work  properly, 
it  is  not  in  good  enough  condition  for  the  welfare  of  the  seeds, 
and  more  work  should  be  put  upon  it  before  sowing  is  attempted. 

Most  garden  seed  drills  plant  only  one  row  at  a  time.  However, 
extensive  growers  of  certain  crops,  such  as  onion  sets,  have  rigged 
up  machines  that  plant  as  high  as  five  or  even  more  rows  at  a  time. 
Some  of  these  are  operated  by  hand,  others  by  a  horse  or  a  gasoline 
engine.  Certain  makes  of  garden  tractors  are  equipped  for  seeding 
three  rows  at  a  time.  When  peas  are  grown  in  large  areas  for 
canning  they  are  usually  sown  with  a  grain  drill.  Sweet  corn  and 
beans  may  be  planted  with  a  regular  corn  planter,  and  sometimes 
even  cucumbers  and  muskmelons  are  planted  on  rich  soil  with 
this  machine  by  using  a  special  plate. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  conditions  are  essential  to  the  germination  of  seed? 

2.  How  may  a  supply  of  moisture  be  maintained  in  direct  contact  with  the  seed? 

3.  Why  will  seeds  not  germinate  properly  in  a  poorly  drained  soil? 

4.  At  what  temperatures  do  seeds  germinate? 

5.  How  may  the  proper  temperature  for  germination  be  secured? 

6.  What  factors  determine  the  depth  for  planting  seeds? 

7.  What  two  factors  determine  the  distance  for  planting  seeds? 

8.  Mention  the  proper  distances  for  a  number  of  common  vegetables. 

9.  What  advantages  are  claimed  for  thick  seeding  of  vegetables  sown  in  drills? 

10.  What  difficulties  arise  as  a  result  of  thick  seeding? 

11.  What  is  the  present  tendency  among  commercial  vegetable  growers  in 

regard  to  thickness  of  seeding? 

12.  If  thinning  of  the  seedlings  is  necessary,  when  should  it  be  done? 

13.  What  are  the  two  general  methods  of  sowing  vegetable  seeds? 

14.  Describe  the  four  distinct  operations  involved  in  the  sowing  of  seeds  by  hand. 

15.  What  advantages  has  sowing  with  a  garden  seed  drill  over  the  hand 

method  of  sowing  seeds? 

16.  With  what  crops  is  thinning  practiced  in  your  locality? 


CHAPTER  XII 

CONTROLLING  INSECTS  AND  DISEASES  THAT  ATTACK 
VEGETABLE  CROPS 

There  are  a  number  of  insects  and  diseases  that  attack  vege- 
table crops.  Some  are  very  general  in  their  distribution,  and  are 
likely  to  be  more  or  less  prevalent  over  a  wide  range  of  territory 
every  year.  Others  are  more  restricted  in  their  range,  or  appear 
to  a  serious  extent  only  when  conditions  for  their  development 
are  especially  favorable.  If  these  enemies  are  allowed  undisputed 
possession  of  the  garden,  they  will  at  times  utterly  destroy  certain 
crops  and  reduce  the  yield  or  quality  of  others.  On  the  other 
hand,  if  proper  precautions  are  taken  to  control  these  enemies, 
serious  loss  of  crops  from  this  cause  can  usually  be  avoided. 

Rotation  of  crops  is  a  potent  factor  in  the  control  of  certain 
insects  and  diseases  that  pass  the  winter  in  the  soil  or  in  the  refuse 
of  crops  in  the  soil.  This  applies  especially  to  organisms  that 
normally  are  not  distributed  in  spring  to  any  great  distance  from 
the  place  where  they  pass  the  winter. 

Many  insects  and  disease  germs  can  be  destroyed  by  burning 
the  refuse  from  an  infested  or  infected  crop,  instead  of  allowing 
it  to  remain  in  the  field  or  throwing  it  upon  the  compost  heap 
where  it  will  later  be  returned  to  the  land.  Also,  in  the  case  of 
crops  infected  with  certain  diseases,  it  is  unwise  to  feed  the  crop 
refuse  to  farm  animals,  for  the  disease  germs  may  remain  viable 
in  the  manure  and  serve  as  a  source  of  re-infection  when  returned 
to  the  land. 

Sometimes  serious  injury  from  a  given  insect  may  be  avoided 
by  varying  the  time  of  planting  so  that  the  crop  will  not  be  at 
the  most  easily  injured  stage  when  the  insects  are  most  abundant. 
Certain  plantings  of  sweet  corn  may  be  seriously  damaged  by 
the  ear-worm,  otherwise  known  as  the  cotton  boll-worm,  while 
both  earlier  and  later  plantings  may  quite  largely  escape.  Late 
plantings  of  cucumbers  and  squashes  are  much  less  likely  to  be 
severely  attacked  by  striped  beetles  than  are  early  plantings. 

Late  fall  plowing  can  often  be  made  a  means  of  breaking  up 
the  winter  quarters  of  certain  insects  and  thus  exposing  them  to 
the  elements  and  to  their  enemies. 

83 


84  CONTROLLING  INSECTS  AND  DISEASES 

Mechanical  Means  of  Controlling  Insects. — All  the  above  are 
very  indirect,  yet  often  quite  efficient,  means  of  avoiding  trouble 
from  insects  and  diseases.  Unfortunately  they  are  applicable 
only  in  the  case  of  certain  enemies,  and  other  means  of  control 
must  be  sought.  Certain  mechanical  means,  somewhat  less  in- 
direct than  those  mentioned  above,  can  be  employed  to  prevent 
injury  to  certain  crops  by  their  insect  enemies.  Protection  of 
individual  plants  of  cabbage  or  tomato  from  cutworms  may  be 
afforded  by  wrapping  a  piece  of  stiff  paper  about  the  stem  of  the 
plant  when  it  is  transplanted  (Fig.  45).  Individual  hills  of  melons 
or  cucumbers  may  be  protected  from  striped  beetles  by  means  of 
a  bottomless  box  or  frame  covered  with  mosquito  bar  or  cheese 

cloth.  Plants  growing  in  hot- 
beds or  coldframes  may  be  pro- 
tected from  this  insect  enemy 
by  covering  the  entire  frame 
with  netting  with  sufficiently 
fine  mesh  to  exclude  the  insects 
in  question.  A  similar  method 
may  be  employed  to  protect 
young  cabbage  plants  from  the 
maggot  (Fig.  4G).  Another 
mechanical  means  of  control- 
ling insects  is  hand  picking  of 
the  insects  or  their  eggs.     This 

Fig.  45.— Cabbage  plant  wrapped  with  stiff  fi      J      •        nrinliPqKlp      +0      thp 

paper  as  a  protection  against  cutworms.  IllcLllUU     la     d-ppULttUlt;      UU      Ulit; 

tomato  worm  and  celery  cater- 
pillar, and  on  small  areas  to  the  squash  bug  and  potato  beetle. 

The  use  of  trap  crops,  poisoned  baits  and  repellents  are  also 
indirect  methods  of  controlling  insects.  A  trap  crop  is  planted 
in  advance  of  the  regular  crop  with  a  view  to  having  the  insects 
collect  in  large  numbers  on  this  crop,  where  they  may  be  destroyed 
before  the  plants  of  the  regular  crop  appear  above  the  ground. 
Squashes  are  sometimes  planted  as  a  trap  crop  to  aid  in  the  pro- 
tection of  cucumbers  or  melons  from  the  striped  beetle. 

Poisoned  baits  may  be  used  to  kill  off  cutworms  immediately 
preceding  the  planting  out  of  cabbage  and  tomatoes.  The  usual 
method  of  preparing  poisoned  bait  is  to  dip  freshly  cut  clover  into 
a  mixture  of  Paris  green  and  water,  or  to  make  up  a  stiff  bran 
mash  to  which  Paris  green  or  arsenate  of  lead  and  sugar  or  molasses 
are  added.    The  bait  is  scattered  around  the  area  to  be  planted. 


WEEVILS  IN  SEED  PEAS  OR  BEANS 


85 


The  best  results  are  likely  to  accrue  if  the  baiting  is  done  a 
few  days  before  the  planting  is  started,  but  some  degree  of 
success  may  be  attained  by  scattering  the  bait  after  the  plants 
are  set. 

Repellents  may  be  effectively  used  against  the  striped  beetle. 
Any  material  possessing  an  odor  offensive  to  the  insect  in  ques- 
tion may  be  used.  Among  the  common  repellents  are  turpentine 
and  crude  carbolic  acid.  Either  of  these  may  be  mixed  with  ashes, 
land  plaster  or  other  fine,  dry  powder,  and  dusted  upon  the 
plants  by  means  of  a  coarsely  woven  sack  or  perforated  tin  can. 


Fig.  46. — Cabbage  seed-bed  screened  with  cheese  cloth  to  keep  out  the  cabbage  maggot. 

Diseases  which  are  transmitted  on  the  seed  may  often  be 
controlled  by  treatment  of  the  seed  before  planting.  This  is 
especially  true  of  the  potato  scab.  The  usual  treatment  is  to 
soak  the  seed  tubers  for  two  hours  in  a  solution  of  formalin  made 
by  mixing  a  pint  of  formaldehyde  with  thirty  gallons  of  water, 
or  for  one  and  a  half  hours  in  a  solution  of  corrosive  sublimate 
containing  one  ounce  of  the  chemical  to  eight  gallons  of  water. 
Care  must  be  taken  to  avoid  re-infection  of  the  tubers  by  contact 
with  infected  receptacles  before  they  are  planted. 

Weevils  in  seed  peas  or  beans  can  be  killed  by  treatment  with 
carbon  bisulfide.  The  seeds  are  placed  in  an  air-tight  receptacle 
and  a  quantity  of  the  liquid  poured  out  into  a  shallow  dish  which 
is  set  on  top  of  the  mass  of  seeds.    The  liquid  quickly  evaporates, 


86  CONTROLLING  INSECTS  AND  DISEASES 

forming  a  deadly  gas  that  is  heavier  than  air  and  permeates 
throughout  the  mass  of  seeds.  The  receptacle  containing  the  seed 
should  be  left  closed  for  several  hours  after  the  treatment  is  started 
in  order  to  insure  thorough  action  upon  the  insects  within  the 
seeds.  The  gas  given  off  from  the  carbon  bisulfide  is  very  in- 
flammable, and  hence  no  fire  of  any  kind  should  be  in  the  vicinity 
while  the  treatment  of  the  seed  is  in  progress.  The  carbon  bisul- 
fide is  used  at  the  rate  of  one  pint  per  1000  cubic  feet  of  space. 
For  most  effective  results  the  treatment  of  beans  and  peas  should 
take  place  as  soon  as  possible  after  harvesting. 

In  greenhouses,  fumigation  is  the  most  common  means  of  con- 
trolling insects.  Some  form  of  tobacco  or  tobacco  product  is 
ordinarily  used  for  the  control  of  plant  lice  and  similar  insects. 
Formerly  tobacco  stems  were  burned  to  make  a  smudge  in  the 
house,  but  a  more  modern  method  is  to  apply  a  concentrated 
liquid  tobacco  product  to  the  heating  pipes,  the  heat  from  which 
causes  the  poisonous  gases  to  be  given  off.  Some  greenhouse 
pests  are  harder  to  kill  than  plant  lice,  and  necessitate  the  use  of 
a  more  deadly  material  than  tobacco  compounds.  For  the  white 
fly,  hydrocyanic  acid  gas  is  sometimes  used.  This  is  generated 
by  bringing  potassium  cyanide  into  contact  with  a  mixture  of 
sulfuric  acid  and  water.  It  is  a  deadly  poison,  and  extreme  care 
must  be  exercised  to  avoid  breathing  any  of  the  fumes. 

Fumigation  is  also  effective  in  controlling  certain  fungous 
diseases  in  greenhouses.  The  material  most  commonly  used  for 
controlling  fungous  diseases  in  greenhouses  is  sulfur.  When  the 
houses  are  empty  in  summer,  they  may  be  given  a  thorough 
fumigation  by  burning  the  sulfur  in  quite  large  quantities,  as  a 
precautionary  measure.  When  plants  growing  in  the  houses  be- 
come affected  with  mildew,  a  milder  treatment  must  be  employed, 
since  the  actual  burning  of  sulfur  would  injure  the  plants.  How- 
ever, the  slow  evaporation  of  the  sulfur  by  means  of  moderate 
heat  will  check  the  mildew  without  injuring  the  plants.  A  common 
practice  is  to  sprinkle  powdered  sulfur  on  the  heating  pipes,  or 
to  paint  the  pipes  with  a  paste  made  of  sulfur,  lime  and  water. 

spraying  / 

While  the  various  methods  of  controlling  insects  and  fungous 
diseases  mentioned  above  are  applicable  to  particular  cases,  they 
do  not  constitute  the  chief  means  of  warfare  against  crop  pests 
under  outdoor  conditions  of  culture.    Spraying  is  the  great  modern 


SPRAYING 


87 


means  of  controlling  insects  and  diseases  on  vegetables  as  well 
as  fruit  crops;  though  vegetable  growers  have  been  somewhat 
backward  in  recognizing  this  fact,  and  for  the  most  part  have 
allowed  the  fruit  growers  to  perfect  spraying  methods  and  appli- 
ances. The  principles  of  spraying  for  the  control  of  insects  and 
fungous  diseases  are  essentially  the  same  whether  the  plant  to 
be  protected  is  classified  as  a  fruit  or  a  vegetable. 

For  effective  spraying  the  first  essential  is  a  knowledge  of  the 
nature  of  the  organism  to  be  controlled.  There  are  three  classes 
of  enemies  that  can  be  controlled  by  spraying.    They  are  chewing 


chewing  insect:     a,  eggs;  6,  larvse;  c,  pupa;  d,  adults; 
e,  wing  cover  of  adult. 


insects,  sucking  insects  and  fungous  diseases.  These  three  classes 
of  enemies  are  so  different  that  different  spraying  materials  are 
needed  to  control  them. 

The  chewing  insects  bite  off  portions  of  the  plant,  chew  them 
up  and  swallow  them,  the  same  as  any  of  the  higher  animals 
take  their  food.  Potato  beetles,  cabbage  worms  and  the  various 
forms  of  caterpillars  belong  to  this  class  (Fig.  47).  The  simplest 
means  of  killing  such  insects  is  to  poison  their  food.  This  is 
accomplished  by  applying  a  thin,  uniform  coating  of  poison  over 
all  parts  of  the  plants  to  be  protected.  The  poison  must  be  suffi- 
ciently virulent  to  cause  death  of  the  insects  when  eaten  in  rela- 
tively small  quantities,  so  that  no  large  part  of  the  plant  need  be 


88  CONTROLLING  INSECTS  AND  DISEASES 

destroyed  before  the  insects  succumb.  For  the  same  reason,  the 
application  should  be  made  at  the  beginning  of  the  attack  rather 
than  after  considerable  destruction  has  taken  place. 

The  material  now  most  commonly  used  for  controlling  chewing 
insects  is  arsenate  of  lead,  though  Paris  green  is  used  to 
some  extent.  Both  are  compounds  of  arsenic.  They  can  safely  be 
used  on  vegetables  if  they  do  not  come  in  contact  with  the  edible 
part,  or  if  considerable  time  is  to  elapse  between  the  spraying  and 
the  gathering  of  the  crop  for  use.  For  crops  that  are  to  be  used 
soon  after  spraying,  white  hellebore  is  a  safer  material  to  employ, 
since  it  is  a  vegetable  product  and  loses  its  poisonous  properties 


Fig.   4S. — Squash  bug,  a  sucking  insect:     a,  adult;  6,  egg  cluster;  c,  d,  c, 
young  bugs  in  different  stages.     Twice  natural  size. 

after  a  few  days'  exposure  to  the  air.  It  is  especially  useful  for 
spraying  cabbage  attacked  by  worms  after  heading  has  commenced. 
Sucking  insects  do  not  have  distinctly  developed  jaws  like  the 
chewing  insects,  but  are  provided  with  tube-like  sucking  mouth 
parts  (Fig  48).  They  cannot  bite  off  portions  of  the  plant,  but 
must  take  their  food  in  liquid  form.  Their  method  of  obtaining 
food  is  to  insert  the  beak  into  the  tissue  of  stem  or  leaf  and  suck 
out  the  plant  juices.  When  these  insects  attack  a  plant  in  large 
numbers,  so  much  juice  is  abstracted  that  the  plant  is  seriously 
weakened,  and  in  extreme  cases  may  be  killed  outright.  It  is 
impossible  to  poison  the  food  of  sucking  insects,  since  they  draw 


SPRAYING 


89 


their  nourishment  from  within  the  tissues  of  the  plant.  Therefore, 
a  spraying  material  must  be  used  for  these  insects  that  will  kill 
them  by  coming  in  contact  with  their  bodies.  Formerly  kerosene 
emulsion  and  whale-oil  soap  were  used  for  spraying  vegetable 
crops  attacked  by  plant  lice  and  other  sucking  insects;  but  the 
most  approved  treatment  for  plant  lice  on  outdoor  vegetables  at 
the  present  time  is  spraying  with  a  solution  of  nicotine  sulfate. 
This  is  purchased  in  concentrated  form  and  diluted  with  water 
as  needed  for  use. 

Fungous  diseases  of  plants  are  caused  by  the  development  of 
low  forms  of  plant  life,  known  as  fungi,  on  or  within  the  tissue  of 
the  higher  plant.     These  fungi  secure  their  sustenance  from  the 


Fig.  49. — A  fungus  growing  within  the  tissue  of  a  leaf. 

plant  on  which  they  grow,  and  their  development  may  result  in 
the  partial  or  complete  destruction  of  the  host  plant.  Fungi  arc 
propagated  by  spores,  which  correspond  to  the  seeds  of  higher 
plants.  The  spores  are  exceedingly  small  and  in  the  case  of  many 
fungi  are  carried  about  by  the  wind.  If  they  find  lodgement  on  a 
susceptible  host  plant,  and  the  conditions  of  temperature  and 
moisture  are  favorable  for  their  germination,  they  start  growth 
and  soon  develop  into  plants  that  are  securing  their  nourishment 
at  the  expense  of  their  hosts  (Fig.  49).  Spraying  for  the  control 
of  fungous  diseases  involves  the  application  of  a  material  that 
will  either  prevent  germination  of  the  spores  or  kill  the  germ  tube 


90  CONTROLLING  INSECTS  AND  DISEASES 

before  it  enters  the  tissue  of  the  host.  To  be  effective,  the  spraying 
material  must  be  applied  to  the  host  plant  before  the  spores  of 
the  fungus  germinate.  Therefore,  if  the  spraying  is  to  be  most 
effective,  an  attack  of  the  fungi  must  be  anticipated,  and  the 
spray  applied  before  the  disease  appears.  In  localities  where  given 
diseases  are  prevalent,  the  usual  time  of  attack  must  be  known 
and  precautionary  measures  taken  accordingly.  Some  diseases 
are  almost  continuous  in  their  attack  through  a  large  part  of  the 
growing  season.  Such  diseases  can  be  controlled  only  by  repeated 
applications  of  spraying  materials,  so  that  the  new  foliage  that 
develops  between  applications  will  not  remain  long  without  pro- 
tection, and  the  coating  will  be  renewed  on  older  foliage  from  which 
it  has  been  washed  by  rains,  or  more  or  less  dislodged  by  reason 
of  foliage  expansion. 

The  spraying  material  best  adapted  to  the  control  of  fungous 
diseases  on  vegetable  crops  is  known  as  Bordeaux  mixture. 

FORMULAS   FOR   SPRAY   MIXTURES 

Bordeaux  mixture  consists  of  lime,  copper  sulfate  and  water. 
The  lime  is  slaked  with  water  and  the  copper  sulfate  dissolved 
in  water.  The  two  ingredients  are  kept  separate  until  immediately 
before  the  spraying  is  to  be  done;  then  they  are  each  diluted  to 
half  the  volume  of  the  spray  mixture  desired,  poured  together 
and  stirred  thoroughly. 

In  slaking  the  lime  only  a  small  quantity  of  water  should  be 
applied  at  first,  and  additional  amounts  added  from  time  to  time 
as  the  slaking  proceeds,  only  enough  water  being  supplied  each 
time  to  keep  the  mass  from  becoming  overheated.  After  slaking 
is  completed,  the  mass  may  be  diluted  to  any  desired  volume. 
Before  it  is  combined  with  the  copper  sulfate  the  lime  must  be 
strained  to  remove  any  coarse  particles. 

To  dissolve  the  copper  sulfate,  it  should  be  suspended  in  a 
sack  or  basket  near  the  top  of  a  barrel  or  other  wooden  receptacle 
filled  with  water.  If  thrown  into  the  bottom  of  the  barrel  and 
covered  with  water,  the  copper  sulfate  crystals  will  soon  become 
surrounded  by  a  saturated  solution  of  copper  sulfate,  which  will 
prevent  any  further  dissolving  of  the  crystals.  On  the  other  hand, 
if  the  crystals  are  suspended  as  directed,  the  solution  of  copper 
sulfate,  which  is  heavier  than  water,  will  sink  towards  the  bottom 
of  the  barrel  as  fast  as  it  is  made,  and  leave  the  purest  water  in 
contact  with  the  crystals  to  continue  the  dissolving  process. 


FORMULAS  FOR  SPRAY  MIXTURES  91 

Bordeaux  mixture  may  be  made  of  different  strengths  for 
spraying  different  plants,  but  a  common  strength  is  four  pounds 
of  lime,  four  pounds  of  copper  sulfate  and  fifty  gallons  of  water. 
If  large  quantities  are  to  be  used,  it  is  better  to  make  stock  solu- 
tions of  copper  sulfate  and  of  lime  than  to  prepare  separate  lots 
each  time  a  barrel  of  spraying  material  is  needed.  If  the  stock 
solutions  are  made  by  using  one  pound  of  copper  sulfate  or  of 
lime  to  each  gallon  of  water,  it  is  only  necessary  to  measure  out 
four  gallons  of  each  stock  solution  to  get  the  required  amounts  to 
make  fifty  gallons  of  Bordeaux  mixture.  The  stock  solutions 
should  be  kept  in  wooden  vessels,  and  should  be  stirred  thoroughly 
just  before  any  of  the  material  is  measured  out,  in  order  to  insure 
getting  material  of  uniform  strength.  The  stock  solutions  will 
keep  indefinitely,  if  covered  to  prevent  evaporation;  but  the 
Bordeaux  mixture  should  be  used  the  day  it  is  made. 

Paris  green  is  purchased  in  the  form  of  a  dry  powder.  It 
may  be  applied  as  a  simple  mixture  with  water,  but  since  it  is 
likely  to  contain  soluble  arsenic  which  is  injurious  to  foliage,  a 
safer  plan  is  to  add  a  small  quantity  of  slaked  lime  to  the  mixture 
of  Paris  green  and  water.  This  combines  with  any  arsenic  that 
may  dissolve  in  the  water,  and  makes  the  mixture  much  safer 
to  apply  to  the  foliage.  Equal  quantities  of  Paris  green  and  lime 
make  a  safe  mixture,  though  more  lime  is  often  used.  In  mixing 
Paris  green  with  water,  it  should  first  be  made  into  a  thin  paste 
with  a  small  quantity  of  water.  This  insures  a  smooth  mixture 
free  from  lumps.  When  lime  is  to  be  used  with  the  Paris  green 
it  is  a  good  plan  to  dilute  the  slaked  lime  with  water  to  almost 
the  full  volume  of  the  spray  mixture  to  be  made;  then  stir  in  the 
Paris  green,  which  has  previously  been  made  into  a  paste  with  a 
small  quantity  of  water  as  already  suggested.  Paris  green  is 
used  at  different  strengths,  but  four  ounces  to  fifty  gallons  of 
water  is  a  very  common  strength.  Sometimes  as  much  as  eight 
ounces  to  fifty  gallons  is  used  for  spraying  potatoes  for  the  control 
of  the  Colorado  potato  beetle. 

Arsenate  of  lead  may  be  purchased  in  either  paste  or  powder 
form.  The  paste  form  contains  about  50  per  cent,  of  water,  so  that 
twice  as  much  paste  as  powder  is  required  to  furnish  the  same 
amount  of  arsenic.  The  arsenate  of  lead  should  always  be  worked 
up  with  a  small  quantity  of  water  until  a  smooth,  homogeneous 
mixture  is  obtained.  This  is  then  gradually  diluted  to  the  de- 
sired volume.    The  paste  is  more  difficult  to  work  up  than  the 


92 


CONTROLLING  INSECTS  AND  DISEASES 


powder.  A  common  strength  of  arsenate  of  lead  is  two  pounds  of 
paste  or  one  pound  of  powder  to  fifty  gallons  of  water,  though 
twice  these  quantities  are  sometimes  used.  Although  arsenate  of  lead 
contains  much  less  soluble  arsenic  than  does  Paris  green,  slaked 
lime  is  sometimes  added  in  quantity  equal  to  the  arsenate  of  lead 
as  a  precautionary  measure  when  tender  foliage  is  to  be  sprayed. 
White  hellebore  may  be  dusted  on  the  plants  in  the  dry  form 
without  dilution;  or  it  may  be  mixed  with  water  at  the  rate  of 
one  pound  to  fifty  gallons,  and  applied  as  a  spray. 

Nicotine  sulfate  is  offered  on  the  market  in  various  degrees  of 
concentration  and  under  various  trade  names.  One  of  the  most 
concentrated  forms  is  known  as  "  Black 
Leaf  40."  This  will  kill  plant  lice  even 
when  used  as  dilute  as  one  part  in  a 
thousand  of  water. 

GENERAL  PRINCIPLES  OF  SPRAYING 

Suit  the  Material  to  the  Plants.— 

In  all  spraying  operations,  the  material 
used  must  be  of  such  a  nature  and  ap- 
plied at  such  a  strength  and  in  such  a 
manner  that  it  will  control  the  enemy 
without  injuring  the  host  plant.  Since 
both  enemy  and  host  consist  of  organic 
tissue,  and  both  enemies  and  hosts  vary 
in  their  degree  of  resistance  to  spray 
materials,  the  margin  of  safety  is  some- 
times small.  For  this  reason  a  material 
which  may  be  effective  in  controlling  a 
certain  enemy  on  a  given  plant  may  be 
unsafe  to  use  in  controlling  a  similar  enemy  on  another  kind  of 
plant.  The  usual  strength  of  Bordeaux  mixture  is  perfectly  safe 
for  spraying  potatoes,  but  is  likely  to  injure  melon  foliage;  hence 
half  strength  Bordeaux  mixture  is  used  in  the  spraying  of  melons. 
Methods  of  Applying  Spray  Materials. — Spray  materials 
should  be  applied  as  uniformly  as  possible  to  all  parts  of  the  plant 
to  be  protected.  If  plant  lice  are  working  on  the  under  surfaces  of 
the  leaves,  these  parts  must  receive  special  attention.  In  order  that 
the  application  may  be  uniform,  the  spray  must  be  fine.  The 
fineness  of  the  spray  is  determined  mainly  by  two  factors,  the 
character  of  the  nozzle  and  the  amount  of  pressure.     A  nozzle 


Fig.  50. — Compressed  air  knap- 
sack sprayer. 


METHODS  OF  APPLYING  SPRAY  MATERIALS  93 

of  the  cyclone  type  with  a  very  small  orifice  is  best  adapted  to 
general  spraying  of  vegetable  crops.  As  high  pressure  as  is  con- 
sistent with  the  type  of  spraying  apparatus  used  is  advisable. 
For  small-area  vegetable  spraying,  a  compressed  air  sprayer  of 
the  knapsack  type  (Fig.  50)  is  very  satisfactory,  since  it  can  be 
carried  anywhere  and  used  in  thickly  planted  areas  as  well  as 
where  the  rows  are  wide  apart.  However,  for  plantations  of  any 
considerable  size,  spraying  with  such  an  apparatus  becomes  very 
tedious,  and  a  larger  outfit  should  be  employed.  A  regular  barrel 
spray  pump  mounted  on  a  two-wheeled  cart  is  quite  generally 
useful  in  spraying  an  assortment  of  vegetable  crops  (Fig.  51). 


In  order  that  such  an  outfit  may  be  used  to  best  advantage,  it  is 
advisable  in  planting  the  crops  to  space  the  rows  for  the  accom- 
modation of  the  spray  cart,  or  if  a  close-planted  crop  is  to  be 
sprayed,  to  leave  driveways  at  sufficiently  close  intervals  so  that 
the  hose  will  reach  half-way  from  one  drive  to  the  next.  When 
large  areas  are  planted  to  individual  crops  requiring  spraying, 
spray  machinery  designed  especially  for  the  purpose  is  usually 
employed.  Thus  there  are  potato  sprayers  that  spray  three  to 
six  rows  at  a  time,  as  fast  as  a  team  can  walk.  Melons  may  be 
sprayed  with  similar  outfits  by  proper  training  of  the  vines  (Fig. 
52). 


94 


CONTROLLING  INSECTS  AND  DISEASES 


Timeliness  in  spraying  is  fully  as  important  as  thoroughness. 
Chewing  insects  must  be  killed  before  they  have  destroyed  much 
of  the  foliage.  It  is  of  little  use  to  spray  potatoes  after  the  beetles 
have  reduced  the  plants  to  bare  stalks,  for  the  crop  from  such 
plants  h  likely  to  be  less  than  the  quantity  of  seed  planted.  If 
flea  beetles  are  allowed  to  work  unchecked  on  eggplants,  they 
cause  so  much  injury  that  the  yield  may  amount  to  practically 
nothing.  If  there  is  delay  in  bringing  cabbage  worms  under  con- 
trol, the  development  of  the  crop  is  seriously  retarded  and  the  size 
of  the  heads  greatly  reduced. 


Fig.  52. — Spraying  muskmelons  with  tbree-row,  geared-powei  sprayer. 


Sucking  insects,  also,  must  not  be  allowed  to  seriously  weaken 
the  plants  before  they  are  brought  under  control,  for  a  weakened 
plant  can  not  yield  as  large  or  as  good  a  product  as  one  in  full 
vigor.  A  melon  vine  badly  injured  by  plant  lice  never  yields  fruit 
of  good  quality. 

Fungous  diseases  must  be  checked  before  they  have  gained 
serious  headway,  if  satisfactory  results  from  the  spraying  are  to 
be  secured ;  for  spraying  will  not  restore  leaf  tissue  that  has  already 
become  diseased,  and  the  loss  of  leaf  surface  is  weakening  to  the 
plant.    The  diseased  spots  can  not  be  " cured";  but  the  spraying 


TIMELINESS  IN  SPRAYING  95 

will  protect  the  foliage  that  has  not  yet  been  attacked.  Hence 
the  effectiveness  of  spraying  the  entire  plant  as  soon  as  diseased 
spots  appear  on  any  part  of  it. 

Caution. — Most  spray  materials  are  poisonous.  Special  care 
should  be  taken  to  avoid  leaving  any  of  them  where  there  is  any 
possibility  of  their  being  accessible  to  small  children  or  to  farm 
animals.  All  packages  should  be  conspicuously  labeled 
"POISON."  When  fumigating  with  carbon  bisulfide  or  hydro- 
cyanic acid  gas,  conspicuous  signs  should  be  posted  warning 
everybody  to  keep  out,  and  stating  the  reason  why.  The  doors 
of  the  building  where  the  fumigating  is  being  done  should  also 
be  locked,  and  no  one  allowed  to  enter  until  at  least  twelve  hours 
after  the  fumigating  has  been  started.  Even  then  the  building 
should  be  entered  with  caution. 

Dusting. — While  spraying  with  liquid  materials  is  the  more 
common  method  of  applying  insecticides  and  fungicides  to  vege- 
table plants  on  a  commercial  scale  applications  of  material  in 
powder  form  may  be  made  by  means  of  special  dusting  apparatus. 
Hand  outfits  or  power  outfits  may  be  employed,  depending  upon 
the  size  of  the  area. 

QUESTIONS 

1 .  How  may  rotation  of  crops  be  made  a  means  of  avoiding  loss  from  the 

attacks  of  insects  and  diseases? 

2.  What  should  be  done  with  the  refuse  from  a  crop  infected  with  a  fungous 

disease? 

3.  What  is  the  relation  of  time  of  planting  to  insect  injury  in  certain  cases? 

4.  How  may  individual  plants  be  protected  from  insects  by  mechanical 

means? 

5.  What  is  meant  by  a  "trap  crop"? 

6.  What  insects  may  be  killed  by  poisoned  baits?    How  is  the  poisoned  bait 

prepared? 

7.  What  insects  are  sometimes  controlled  by  repellents?     What  materials 

may  be  used  as  repellents? 

8.  What  materials  may  be  used  for  treating  seed  potatoes  for  the  control 

of  scab?    Give  directions  for  treatment. 

9.  How  may  weevils  in  seed  peas  or  beans  be  killed?     What  precautions 

must  be  taken  in  handling  the  material  used? 

10.  What  is  the  general  method  of  controlling  insects  in  greenhouses? 

11.  What  three  classes  of  enemies  to  vegetable  crops  can  be  controlled  by 

spraying? 

12.  How  may  the  chewing  insects  be  killed?    What  poisons  are  used? 

13.  How  does  a  sucking  insect  obtain  its  food?    Hew  may  it  be  killed?    What 

materials  are  used? 


CHAPTER   XIII 

CLASSIFICATION  OF  VEGETABLES 

The  number  of  different  kinds  of  vegetables  is  so  large  that, 
unless  the  kinds  that  are  similar  in  certain  particulars  are  grouped 
together,  it  is  extremely  difficult  for  the  student  to  remember  the 
details  regarding  the  culture  and  uses  of  each  crop.  The  matter 
is  very  much  simplified  if  the  crops  are  grouped  according  to  their 
cultural  requirements.  Some  suggestions  regarding  the  grouping 
of  crops,  based  upon  their  temperature  requirements,  were  given 
in  Chapter  VII.  A  more  complete  classification,  including  sub- 
divisions of  the  various  groups,  is  given  here.  Only  those  vege- 
tables are  included  in  this  classification  which  are  to  be  treated 
in  the  present  work. 

I.  Cool  Season  Crops: — 

1.  Cool  season  crops  that  quickly  reach  edible  maturity: 

(a)  Spring  salads — 

Leaf  lettuce,  Lactuca  saliva. 
Garden  cress,  Lepidium  sativum. 
Corn  salad,  Valerianella  olitoria. 

(b)  Spring  greens — 

Spinach,  Spinacia  oleracea. 

Mustard,  Brassica  nigra,  B.  alba,  B.  juncea,  and  B.  japonica. 

(c)  Short  season  root  crops — 

Radishes,  Raphanus  sativus. 
Turnips,  Brassica  Rapa. 
Kohlrabi,  Brassica  caulorapa 
Rutabagas,  Brassica  campestris. 

(d)  Peas,  Pisum  sativum. 

2.  Cool  season  crops  that  usually  are  transplanted : 

(a)  Spring  crops  that  mature  before  the  heat  of  summer — 
Head  lettuce,  Lactuca  sativa,  var.  capitata. 

Cos  lettuce  or  romaine,  Lactuca  sativa,  var.  longifolia. 
Early  cabbage,  Brassica  oleracca,  var.  capitata. 
Early  cauliflower,  Brassica  oleracea,  var.  botrytis. 

(b)  Crops  that  make  their  principal  growth  in  the  cool  weather  of 
autumn — ■ 

Late  cabbage,  Brassica  oleracea,  var.  capitata  and  var.  bullata. 

Late  cauliflower,  Brassica  oleracea,  var.  botrytis. 

Broccoli,  Brassica  oleracea,  var.  botrytis. 

Brussels  sprouts,  Brassica  oleracea,  var.  gemmifera. 

Celery,  Ajpium  graveolens. 

Celeriac  or  turnip-rooted  celery,  Apium  graveolens,  var.  rapaceum. 

3.  Cool  season  crops  that  will  endure  summer  heat: 

(a)  Root  crops  that  endure  summer  heat  but  not  winter  freezing— 
96 


WARM  SEASON  CROPS  97 

Beets,  Beta  vulgaris. 
Carrots,  Daucus  Carota. 
(6)   Root  crops  that  withstand  winter  freezing  as  well  as  summer 
heat — 

Parsnips,  Pastinaca  sativa. 
Salsify,  Tragopogon  porrifolius. 
Horse-radish,  Armoracia  rusticana. 

(c)  Greens  that  endure  heat- 

Chard  or  Swiss  chard,  Beta  vulgaris,  var.  Cicla. 
Kale  or  borecole,  Brassica  oleracea,  var.  acephala. 
Collards,  Brassica  oleracea,  var.  acephala. 
New  Zealand  spinach,  Tetragonia  expansa. 
Dandelion,  Taraxacum  officinale. 

(d)  Salad  plants  that  endure  heat — 

Parsley,  Petroselinum  hortense. 
Upland  cress,  Barbarca  vulgaris. 
Endive,  Cichorium  Endivia. 

(e)  The  onion  group — ■ 

Onions,  Allium  Cepa. 

Leeks,  Allium  Porrum. 

Garlic,  Allium  sativum. 

Shallots,  Allium  ascalonicum. 

Chives,  Allium  Scho?noprasum. 
(J)    Potatoes,  Solarium  tuberosum, 
(g)   Perennial  crops — 

Asparagus,  Asparagus  officinalis. 

Rhubarb,  Rheum  Rhaponticum. 

Globe  artichoke,  Cynara  Scolymus. 

Sea-kale,  Crambe  maritima. 
II.  Warm  Season  Crops: — 

1.  Warm  season  crops  usually  not  transplanted: 

(a)  Beans — 

String  beans,  Phaseolus  vulgaris  and  P.  mdgaris,  var.  nanus. 
Green  shell  beans   (including  Limas,  Phaseolus  lunatus  and  P. 

lunatus,  var.  macrocarpus) . 
Dry  shell  beans,  Phaseolus  vulgaris  and  P.  vulgaris,  var.  nanus 

(6)  Corn- 
Sweet  corn,  Zea  saccharata. 
Pop  corn,  Zea  everta. 

(c)  Okra  or  gumbo,  Hibiscus  esculentus. 

(d)  The  vine  crops — 

Muskmelons,  Cucumis  Melo. 

Watermelons,  Citrallus  vulgaris. 

Citron  or  preserving  melon,  Citrullus  vtdgaris. 

Cucumbers,  Cucumis  sativus. 

Gherkins,  Cucumis  Anguria. 

Squashes,  Cucurbita  maxima,  C.  Pepo,  var.  condensa  and  C. 

moschata. 
Pumpkins,  Cucurbita  Pepo  and  C.  maxima. 

2.  Warm  season  crops  that  require  transplanting: 

(a)  Tomatoes,  Lycopersicum  esculentum. 

(b)  Eggplant,  Solamim  Melongena. 

(c)  Peppers,  Capsicum  annuum. 

(d)  Sweet  potatoes,  Ipomcea  Batatas. 


CHAPTER  XIV 

COOL  SEASON  CROPS  THAT   QUICKLY  REACH  EDIBLE 
MATURITY 

The  crops  in  this  group  are  seldom  transplanted.  So  short 
is  their  period  of  growth  that  they  are  usually  able  to  reach  edible 
maturity  in  central  latitudes  before  the  normal  season  for  hot 
weather,  if  the  seed  is  sown  in  the  open  ground  as  soon  as  the 
soil  reaches  workable  condition  in  the  spring.  The  group  includes 
certain  salad  plants,  "  greens  "  and  root  crops,  and  also  garden 
peas.  The  chief  point  which  these  crops  have  in  common  is 
their  ability  to  thrive  at  low  temperature  and  inability  to  endure 
heat. 

SPRING    SALADS 

Leaf  Lettuce. — The  most  widely  grown  salad  plant  in  America 
is  leaf  lettuce.  Almost  every  one  who  does  any  gardening  at  all 
includes  leaf  lettuce  in  his  plantings.  It  is  an  easy  plant  to  grow, 
but  does  not  reach  perfection  unless  the  weather  is  cool  and  the 
soil  rich  and  moist.  Therefore,  in  central  latitudes  *  it  should  be 
planted  at  the  earliest  possible  moment  in  spring  in  order  that  it 
may  have  time  to  complete  its  growth  before  hot  weather  arrives. 
Farther  north,  in  localities  where  the  nights  are  always  cool, 
successive  plantings  may  be  made.  In  the  South  lettuce  may  be 
grown  as  a  late  fall  or  winter  crop. 

The  seeds  of  leaf  lettuce  may  be  sown  in  the  open  ground 
in  drills  twelve  inches  apart,  so  that  thorough  tillage  may  be 
given.  The  plants  are  usually  not  thinned  before  reaching 
edible  age,  but  are  allowed  to  grow  in  dense  tufts  if  the  seed- 
ing has  been  thick.     The  leaves  reach  edible  size  sooner  if  the 

*  The  terms  "central,"  "northern"  and  "southern  latitudes"  as  used  in 
this  and  succeeding  chapters  are  synonymous  with  central,  northern  and  south- 
ern "  localities "  respectively.  While  no  absolute  boundaries  for  the  localities 
indicated  can  be  ascribed,  since  one  merges  into  another,  nevertheless,  in  a 
general  way,  the  territory  lying  between  the  37th  and  42nd  parallels  of  lati- 
tude may  be  considered  as  essentially  "central"  so  far  as  climatic  conditions 
are  concerned,  while  the  area  north  of  the  42nd  parallel  may  be  considered 
"northern"  and  that  south  of  the  37th  parallel  "southern."  These  bound- 
aries refer  to  relatively  low  elevations.  There  is  a  difference  of  approximately 
one  week  in  the  earliness  of  the  season  for  each  hundred  miles  difference  in 
latitude.    See  map  on  page  321. 


SPRING  SALADS 


90 


plants  are  somewhat  crowded,  for  then  they  stretch  for  light. 
However,  if  large  individual  plants  (Fig.  53)  are  desired  for 
market,  the  seeding  must  be  light  or  the  plants  thinned.  In  the 
home  garden  it  is  a  good  plan  to  begin  thinning  the  lettuce  as 
soon  as  it  is  large  enough  to  use,  and  continue  the  process  as  the 
product  is  needed  for  the  table.  By  the  time  the  thinning  is  com- 
pleted, the  plants  first  thinned  will  have  attained  large  size,  and 
the  harvesting  of  the  lettuce  may  continue. 

In  gathering  leaf  lettuce,  the  usual  practice  is  to  pull  the  entire 
plant.     However,  there  are  some  varieties  of  lettuce  that  will 


Fig.  53. — A  well-developed  plant  of  leaf  lettuce. 

produce  a  new  crop  of  leaves  if  the  first  crop  is  cut  off  just  above 
ground.  These  are  sometimes  designated  as  "  cutting  "  varieties. 
They  are  desirable  for  the  home  garden,  since  they  make  it  pos- 
sible to  have  lettuce  for  a  long  time  from  a  single  planting. 

Sometimes,  in  the  home  garden,  leaf  lettuce  is  sown  broadcast 
and  not  cultivated.  However,  this  is  usually  a  less  satisfactory 
method  than  sowing  in  rows  and  giving  thorough  tillage. 

Since  lettuce  requires  an  abundance  of  moisture  if  the  growth 
is  to  be  rapid,  and  since  rapid  growth  is  essential  to  good  quality, 
facilities  for  artificial  watering  are  highly  desirable.  Shading  of 
the  plants,  if  the  weather  becomes  warm,  is  also  beneficial.    How- 


100 


COOL  SEASON  CROPS 


ever,  even  these  precautions  will  not  make  it  possible  to  produce 
good  lettuce  in  midsummer  in  a  hot  climate,  for  lettuce  is  essen- 
tially a  cool  weather  plant.  In  hot,  dry  weather  it  becomes  tough, 
bitter  and  undesirable. 

Under  favorable  conditions  of  temperature  and  moisture 
lettuce  grows  rapidly  and  will  usually  be  ready  for  the  table  in 
six  to  eight  weeks  after  the  planting  of  the  seed.  This  makes  it 
an  attractive  crop  for  the  amateur  gardener. 

Garden  cress,  known  also  as  "  pepper  grass  "  because  of  its 
pungent  flavor,  is  another  crop  of  easy  culture  and  exceedingly 
rapid  growth.  It  may  be  used  for  flavoring  salads,  for  garnishing 
or  for  making  sandwiches.  The  seed  should  be  sown  in  the  open 
ground  very  early  in  spring.  It  germinates  quickly  at  a  low 
temperature,  and  the  plants  grow  rapidly  if  the  weather  is  cool 


Fig.  54.— Corn  salad. 


and  the  soil  moist.  Later  plantings  run  quickly  to  seed  without 
making  much  foliage  if  the  weather  turns  warm.  Its  chief  func- 
tion in  the  home  garden  is  to  furnish  garnishing  material  early  in 
the  season  before  parsley  is  available.  For  this  purpose  the  cut- 
leafed  and  curled  forms  are  most  desirable. 

The  plants  are  small,  so  that  the  rows  may  be  as  close  together 
as  eight  to  twelve  inches.  The  plants  are  usually  not  thinned, 
except  as  pulled  or  cut  for  use.    Usually  the  entire  plant  is  taken. 

No  special  treatments  are  necessary  in  the  growing  of  garden 
cress,  the  only  precautions  being  to  plant  early,  maintain  moisture, 
and  gather  promptly.  It  is  a  short-lived  crop  and  does  not  remain 
in  edible  condition  very  long.  In  six  weeks  from  planting  it 
should  be  ready  for  use. 

Corn  salad  (Fig.  54)  is  not  extensively  grown  in  America.  Its 
cultural  requirements  are  much  the  same  as  those  of  garden  cress. 


SPRING  GREENS 


101 


It  thrives  only  when  the  weather  is  cool.  The  edible  part  is  the 
rosette  of  leaves  formed  at  the  crown  before  the  seed  stalk  begins 
to  develop.  In  hot  weather  the  plants  either  run  quickly  to  seed 
or  perish  outright.  The  planting  should  therefore  be  done  exceed- 
ingly early  in  spring,  so  that  the  crop  may  develop  before  the 
weather  becomes  hot.  In  mild  climates  the  seed  may  be  sown  in 
the  fall,  and  the  crop  wintered  over  with  slight  protection  for 
early  spring  use.  Sometimes  it  is  also  sown  earlier  in  the  fall 
for  use  before  winter  sets  in.    For  best  results  the  plants  should 


Fig.   55. — Spinach.     A  typical  plant. 

be  thinned  to  about  six  inches  apart  in  the  row. 
eight  weeks  are  required  to  produce  the  crop. 

SPRING    GREENS 


From  six  to 


Spinach. — In  American  gardens  the  most  important  plant 
grown  exclusively  for  "  greens  "  is  spinach  (Fig.  55).  It  is  dis- 
tinctively a  cool  season  crop,  and  quickly  runs  to  seed  in  warm 
weather.  In  central  and  northern  latitudes  the  seed  is  sown  as 
early  in  spring  as  the  ground  can  be  worked,  and  the  crop  is  ready 
for  cutting  in  six  to  eight  weeks. 

In  the  latitude  of  Cairo,  Illinois,  and  Norfolk,  Virginia,  the  seed 
is  more  often  sown  in  September  or  October,  and  the  plants  allowed 
to  winter  over,  usually  without  protection.     As  soon  as  growth 


102  COOL  SEASON  CROPS 

is  resumed  in  spring,  the  crop  is  harvested  and  sent  to  market. 
Still  farther  South,  spinach  may  be  grown  and  harvested  in  mid- 
winter. Formerly  it  was  quite  an  important  crop  for  hotbed  and 
coldframe  culture  at  the  North,  but  now  the  winter  market  is 
supplied  with  the  shipped-in  product  from  the  South. 

Spring  and  Fall-sown  Crops  Contrasted. — When  grown  as  a 
spring-sown  crop,  spinach  is  usually  planted  in  drills  about  a 
foot  apart,  and  given  thorough  tillage  until  the  crop  is  nearly 
ready  to  harvest.  It  is  not  customary  to  thin  the  seedlings.  The 
fall-sown  crop  is  often  seeded  broadcast  on  rich,  carefully  prepared 
land,  and  given  no  tillage  whatever  after  the  seed  is  planted. 
Sometimes  the  seed  is  sown  along  with  timothy  when  a  new 
meadow  is  being  started.  The  spinach  is  cut  so  early  in  spring 
that  it  does  not  interfere  with  the  growth  of  the  grass. 

Spinach  demands  rich  soil,  and  especially  an  abundance  of 
nitrogen.  For  this  reason,  on  some  soils  it  responds  remarkably 
to  top  dressings  of  sodium  nitrate. 

Spinach  does  not  grow  well  unless  it  has  an  abundance  of 
moisture.  It  should  therefore  be  planted  in  moist  soil  at  a  time 
when  rainfall  is  abundant  or  where  artificial  watering  can  be  given. 
In  wet  seasons  and  cool  weather  it  makes  a  luxuriant  growth  of 
almost  perfect  foliage;  but  when  the  weather  is  hot  and  dry,  it 
is  not  only  stunted  by  the  unfavorable  weather  conditions,  but 
also  seems  much  more  subject  to  insect  attacks.  It  is  thus  almost 
impossible  to  produce  good  spinach  when  the  weather  is  hot  and  dry. 

Method  of  Harvesting. — As  soon  as  the  spinach  plant  has 
formed  a  nice  rosette  of  big  succulent  leaves  it  is  ready  to  harvest. 
Usually  the  entire  plant  is  taken.  It  may  be  pulled,  but  the  more 
usual  method  is  to  cut  the  tap-root  about  one-half  inch  below  the 
surface  of  the  ground.  In  the  home  garden,  the  plants  are  cut 
with  a  knife,  the  largest  being  taken  first,  and  the  smaller  ones 
being  left  to  grow.  In  gathering  a  commercial  crop  of  spinach 
grown  in  drills,  the  plants  are  sometimes  cut  by  means  of  a  wheel 
hoe.  In  this  case  all  the  plants  in  the  row  are  harvested  at  the 
same  time,  regardless  of  variation  in  size  of  individual  plants. 

There  are  two  distinct  types  of  spinach,  the  round  seeded  and 
prickly  seeded.  Hand  sowing  of  the  latter  is  a  painful  operation, 
for  the  prickles  are  very  sharp.  However,  the  prickly  seeded  type 
is  preferred  for  fall  sowing  because  it  is  hardier.  For  spring 
sowing  in  the  home  garden,  the  round  seeded  type  is  the  more 
satisfactory. 


SHORT  SEASON  ROOT  CROPS  103 

Mustard  is  sometimes  used  for  greens  in  place  of  spinach.  It 
is  of  easy  culture  and  thrives  on  almost  any  soil,  provided  it  is 
rich  and  moist.  Cool  weather  is  essential  to  a  large  development 
of  foliage  before  seed  stalk  formation  begins.  Seed  should  be 
sown  very  early  in  spring,  either  in  drills  or  broadcast,  and  the 
crop  gathered  as  soon  as  the  leaves  are  large  enough  to  use.  The 
entire  plant  may  be  pulled  or  individual  leaves  plucked  off.  The 
crop  is  one  of  quick  development  but  also  of  short  duration,  for 
the  plants  soon  run  to  seed. 

Mustard  may  be  used  for  salad  as  well  as  for  greens,  though 
the  latter  is  its  principal  use.  There  are  improved,  large-leaved 
types  which  produce  an  enormous  amount  of  foliage  in  a  very 
short  time.  Mustard  is  not  as  fully  appreciated  in  American 
gardens  or  American  markets  as  its  merits  warrant.  In  many 
markets  it  is  unknown,  and  attempts  to  introduce  it  have  often 
been  futile. 

SHORT  SEASON  ROOT  CROPS 

Radishes  are  of  three  distinct  types:  Spring,  summer  and 
winter.  All  are  cool  season  crops,  but  some  will  endure  more  heat 
than  others.  The  summer  radish  will  complete  its  development 
under  moderately  high  temperature  provided  it  has  made  a  good 
start  in  cool  weather,  while  the  winter  radish  must  have  cool 
weather  at  the  finish  though  it  starts  its  growth  in  the  hot 
weather  of  July  or  August. 

In  this  country,  the  spring  type  of  radish  is  very  much  more 
extensively  grown  than  either  of  the  other  types.  The  earliest 
varieties  will  furnish  an  edible  product  in  from  four  to  six  weeks 
from  the  planting  of  the  seed,  the  exact  length  of  time  depending 
primarily  upon  the  temperature.  Fairly  cool  weather  is  required, 
but  too  low  a  temperature  retards  the  growth.  The  roots  of  the 
earliest  varieties  remain  in  edible  condition  only  a  few  days; 
then  they  become  pithy.  Later  varieties  of  spring  radishes 
remain  in  edible  condition  a  somewhat  longer  time,  but  even 
these  must  be  gathered  promptly  or  they  will  suffer  in  point 
of  quality. 

Spring  radishes  (Fig.  56)  should  be  planted  at  the  very  opening 
of  spring  and  successive  plantings  made  at  intervals  of  ten  days 
or  two  weeks.  This  may  be  continued  till  about  the  middle  of 
May  in  latitudes  where  spring  gardening  begins  about  April  1. 
If  planted  later  than  this,  the  spring  radishes  are  usually  unsatis- 


104 


COOL  SEASON  CROPS 


factory,  for  they  become  tough  and  extremely  pungent  before 
reaching  edible  size  when  grown  in  hot  weather.  Still,  if  rains 
are  abundant  in  September,  or  artificial  watering  can  be  given, 
plantings  of  the  spring  type  of  radishes  made  about  the  tenth  of 
that  month  sometimes  produce  crops  of  very  good  quality. 

Summer  radishes  may  be  sown  in  the  month  of  May  and  will 
furnish  an  edible  product  after  the  weather  has  become  too  hot 
for  spring  radishes  (Fig.  57).  They  are  considerably  larger  than 
the  spring  radishes,  and  the  most  pungent  part  is  close  to  the 
skin.  By  peeling,  this  is  removed  and  a  much  more  agreeable 
relish  secured.     Most  summer  radishes  are  white  in  color,  while 

spring  radishes  are  usually  red, 
white,  or  red  tipped  with  white. 
Winter  radishes  are  sown  the 
same  time  as  late  turnips;  i.e., 
late  July  in  northern  latitudes 
and  August  1  to  20  in  central 
locations.  They  seldom  pro- 
duce an  edible  product  if  sown 
at  the  proper  time  for  sowing 
spring  or  summer  radishes. 
The  roots  either  remain  un- 
usually small  or  develop  a  pun- 
gency comparable  only  with 
horse-radish.  The  same  varie- 
ties are  crisp,  tender  and  mild- 
flavored  when  grown  at  their 
proper  season.  A  winter  radish 
(Fig.  58)  is  very  much  larger 
than  a  spring  or  summer  radish 
and  has  to  be  cut  in  pieces  when  served.  One  root  is  sufficient  for 
an  entire  family.  Winter  radishes  are  harvested  before  the  ground 
freezes  in  fall,  and,  if  properly  stored,  will  remain  in  edible  con- 
dition for  three  or  four  months. 

Radishes  are  usually  sown  in  drills  from  eight  to  twelve  inches 
apart,  though  the  spring  type  is  sometimes  sown  broadcast,  and 
for  the  winter  type  at  least  eighteen  inches  should  be  allowed 
between  the  rows.  Spring  and  summer  radishes  are  not  thinned 
except  as  the  early  maturing  specimens  are  harvested.  In  order 
that  the  specimens  may  develop  to  normal  size,  thinning  of  the 
winter  type  is  essential,  and  should  be  done  relatively  early.    The 


56. — An  extra   early  variety   of 
radish. 


TURNIPS  105 

plants  should  stand  at  least  six  inches  apart  in  the  row  if  large 
specimens  are  desired. 

To  avoid  trouble  from  the  root  maggot  it  is  wise  to  practice 
rotation  in  the  growing  of  radishes. 


Fig.  57. — Strasburg,  a  popular  summer  radish. 


Turnips  may  be  grown  either  as  a  spring  or  a  fall  crop  (Fig.  59). 
The  fall  crop  is  of  much  the  greater  importance.  The  spring  crop 
is  consumed  immediately,  while  the  fall  crop  is  stored  for  winter 


106  COOL  SEASON  CROPS 

use.  The  spring  crop  is  sold  by  the  bunch,  the  fall  crop  by  the 
bushel.  The  spring  crop  is  often  sown  in  drills  and  cultivated; 
the  fall  crop  is  usually  sown  broadcast  and  not  cultivated. 

In  order  to  grow  a  satisfactory  crop  of  spring  turnips  it  is 
essential  that  the  seed  be  sown  extremely  early.  Unless  this  is 
done  the  crop  is  likely  to  be  overtaken  by  hot  weather  and  become 
tough  and  bitter.  The  development  of  the  roots  is  hastened  by 
an  abundance  of  moisture.  Therefore  tillage  is  advisable.  The 
soil  should  also  be  rich  to  promote  rapid  growth.  If  the  soil  is 
rich  enough  to  grow  the  roots  rapidly,  the  foliage  is  likely  to  be 
rank.  Therefore  the  rows  should  be  at  least  eighteen  inches 
apart.  For  the  spring  crop  the  plants  are  usually  thinned.  Some- 
times the  thinnings  are  used  for  greens.  Root  maggots  are  likely 
to  be  bad  in  the  spring  crop  if  radishes  or  turnips  have  previously 
been  grown  upon  the  same  ground.  In  extreme  cases  they  may 
ruin  the  crop.    Therefore  rotation  should  be  practiced. 


Fig.  58. — A  winter  radish. 

The  fall  crop  is  more  easily  grown  than  the  spring  crop  if  the 
temperature  is  sufficiently  mild.  It  thrives  better  in  northern 
than  in  southern  localities.  The  usual  practice  is  to  plow  and 
thoroughly  prepare  a  piece  of  land  from  which  an  earlier  crop  has 
been  removed,  sow  the  seed  broadcast  and  harrow  it  in.  This  is 
done  from  July  20  to  August  20,  depending  upon  the  latitude.  No 
further  attention  is  given  the  crop  until  time  for  the  harvest. 
Fall  turnips  thus  constitute  an  incidental  crop  requiring  very 
little  labor  in  its  production.  The  chief  item  of  expense  is  the 
harvesting,  for  the  roots  must  be  pulled  and  topped  by  hand. 
This  is  done  just  before  the  ground  freezes  in  autumn. 

Kohlrabi. — Although  not  strictly  a  root  crop,  kohlrabi  cor- 
responds so  closely  to  the  spring  crop  of  turnips  in  its  cultural 
requirements  that  it  is  treated  in  this  connection.  The  seed  should 
be  sown  in  drills  about  a  foot  apart  as  early  as  the  ground  can  be 


KOHLRABI 


107 


worked  in  spring;  or  if  an  extra  early  crop  is  desired,  the  plants 
may  be  started  in  a  hotbed  and  transplanted  at  the  same  time  as 
early  cabbage.  After  thinning,  the  plants  should  stand  four  to 
six  inches  apart  in  the  row.  Sufficient  tillage  should  be  given  to 
retain  moisture.  The  edible  portion  is  the  swollen  part  of  the 
stem  immediately  above  the  ground   (Fig.  GO).     It  is  of  much 


-The  globe  type  of  turnip:     now  more  popular  than  the  flat  type. 


the  same  consistency  as  a  turnip.  Kohlrabi  should  be  gathered 
for  use  before  it  has  attained  full  size;  otherwise  it  will  be  tough. 
It  is  of  the  best  quality  when  about  two  inches  in  diameter. 

Sometimes  a  late  crop  of  kohlrabi  is  grown,  though  the  early 
spring  crop  is  the  more  important.  The  late  crop  is  sown  in  drills 
at  the  time  late  turnips  are  sown.  Tillage  is  given  and  the  plants 
thinned.    The  crops  may  be  stored  for  winter  use. 


108 


COOL  SEASON  CROPS 


Rutabagas  are  known  also  as  Swedish  turnips  or  "  Swedes." 
They  require  from  four  to  six  weeks  longer  to  complete  their 
growth  than  do  the  common  or  flat  turnips.  This  makes  it  im- 
possible to  grow  them  as  a  spring  crop  in  latitudes  where  the 
summers  are  warm.  Their  chief  importance  is  as  a  fall  crop  for 
winter  storage.  They  do  not  thrive  except  in  northern  latitudes, 
for  their  period  of  growth  is  too  long  to  enable  them  to  adapt 
themselves  to  regions  where  the  summers  are  hot.  Although 
they  will  stand  somewhat  higher  temperature  than  will  flat  turnips, 
they  need  the  cool  nights  of  the  North  to  develop  their  character- 
istic sweetness  and  flavor.  When  grown  in  central  localities  they 
are  likely  to  be  both  small  and  bitter. 


"*..- 


■■in  i  ■:.-.>,.  .-.._-.... 

JTIG.  60. — Well-grown  plant  of  kohlrabi.  The  swollen  central  portion  is  the  edible  pan. 

The  seed  is  usually  sown  in  drills  and  the  plants  thinned. 
Sometimes  they  are  transplanted  if  the  original  stand  is  uneven 
or  a  larger  plantation  desired.  Usually  the  rows  are  far  enough 
apart  to  permit  of  tillage  with  a  horse.  The  plants  should  stand 
about  a  foot  apart  in  the  row.  The  crop  is  thoroughly  cultivated 
and  even  some  hand  hoeing  practiced. 

Rutabagas  constitute  an  important  crop  in  certain  northern 
localities,  where  the  climate  is  cool  and  the  soil  is  moist.     They 


PEAS  109 

are  sold  on  the  winter  market  in  the  Central  States  much  more 
extensively  than  fiat  turnips.    The  flesh  is  dense,  yellow  and  sweet. 


Common  garden  peas  are  of  two  general  types,  smooth-seeded 
and  wrinkled.     The  smooth-seed  varieties  are  the  hardier;  their 


Fig.  61. — A  wrinkled  pea  of  high  quality. 


seeds  will  germinate  when  the  soil  is  so  cold  and  wet  that  the  seeds 
of  wrinkled  varieties  would  rot.  They  are  therefore  the  more 
reliable  for  extremely  early  planting.     On  the  other  hand  the 


10 


COOL  SEASON  CROPS 


wrinkled  varieties  (Fig.  61)  are  of  much  better  quality  than  the 
smooth  (Fig.  62),  being  sweeter  and  more  tender.  They  are 
therefore  preferred  for  the  home  garden  and  for  the  later  plantings 
in  market  gardens. 

Peas  demand  cool  weather  and  must  be  planted  sufficiently 
early  to  perfect  their  crop  before  the  hot  weather  of  summer 
arrives.  In  some  localities  the  season  of  favorable  weather  is 
not  sufficiently  long  to  make  it  feasible  to  grow  the  later  varieties. 
These  succeed  best  in  the  North  where  even  the  summers  are 
cool.  The  early  varieties,  in  both  smooth  and  wrinkled  types, 
can  be  grown  in  almost  any  locality  if  planted  at  the  proper  time. 


seeded  pea  of  the  hardy  type. 


The  smooth-seeded  sorts  should  be  included  in  the  earliest  planting 
of  spring,  along  with  spinach  and  lettuce.  Small  plantings  of 
early  wrinkled  varieties  may  be  made  at  the  same  time  if  desired, 
but  if  the  weather  turns  cold  and  wet  the  seed  is  likely  to  be  lost, 
and  planting  two  weeks  later  is  considered  much  safer.  The 
later  wrinkled  varieties  also  may  be  planted  at  this  time.  In 
localities  where  outdoor  gardening  normally  begins  April  1,  and 
the  summers  are  hot,  it  is  usually  unwise  to  plant  garden  peas 
of  any  kind  after  about  April  20,  for  later  plantings  are  almost 
certain  to  suffer  from  heat  before  perfecting  their  crop.  If  hot 
weather  occurs  before  the  pods  are  formed  they  will  be  scarce, 
short  and  poorly  filled;  if  excessive  heat  occurs  when  the  pods 
are  nearly  grown,  they  are  likely  to  dry  up  without  finishing  their 


PEAS  111 

growth.  Peas  are  thus  an  uncertain  crop  when  the  weather  is 
hot,  and  their  culture  should  be  confined  to  the  part  of  the  year 
that  is  likely  to  be  cool.  In  the  South  they  may  be  grown  in  the 
fall  and  winter,  and  a  fall  crop  is  occasionally  grown  in  central 
latitudes,  but  the  yield  is  usually  light,  for  the  crop  must  be  started 
while  the  weather  is  still  warm  and  the  plants  thus  become  stunted. 
The  early  spring  crop  is  the  most  satisfactory  one  in  central  and 
even  northern  latitudes. 

Size  of  Plants. — Different  varieties  of  peas  produce  different 
sized  plants.  Those  under  two  feet  in  height  are  usually  desig- 
nated as  dwarf;  those  between  two  and  four  feet,  medium  or 
half-dwarf,  and  those  over  four  feet,  tall.  The  dwarf  varieties 
may  be  grown  without  support  and  hence  are  usually  preferred 
for  commercial  plantations.  The  medium  and  tall  varieties  are 
supported  by  means  of  brush,  wire  netting,  or  strands  of  wire 
stretched  on  either  side  of  the  row.  The  medium  and  tall  varieties, 
by  reason  of  their  size  and  their  supports,  must  be  planted  in  rows 
farther  apart  than  the  dwarf  varieties.  This  is  to  allow  space  for 
tillage  and  for  pickers.  Sometimes  the  seed  is  planted  in  double 
rows,  the  two  rows  of  a  pair  being  six  to  eight  inches  apart,  and 
the  pairs  being  three  to  four  feet  apart.  In  that  case  one  line  of 
supports  is  sufficient  for  the  double  row.  The  space  between  the 
two  rows  of  a  pair  can  be  tilled  with  hand  tools  early  in  the  season 
before  the  supports  are  put  in  place.  Later  tillage  can  take  place 
only  in  the  wide  spaces.  This  arrangement  of  rows  was  formerly 
more  popular  than  at  present.  The  usual  plan  now  is  to  plant 
both  tall  and  dwarf  varieties  in  single  rows.  For  the  very  dwarfest 
varieties,  which  do  not  grow  much  over  a  foot  in  height,  the  rows 
may  be  made  from  eighteen  inches  to  two  feet  apart.  Two  and 
a  half  to  three  feet  is  a  better  distance  between  the  rows  for  varie- 
ties that  make  vines  two  feet  long.  As  the  crop  approaches  matu- 
rity the  vines  fall  over,  and  the  distance  between  the  rows  should 
be  slightly  greater  than  the  length  of  the  vines  in  order  to  avoid 
serious  tangling  and  consequent  trouble  in  picking.  Varieties 
requiring  support  should  be  in  rows  three  to  four  feet  apart, 
preferably  four.  This  allows  room  for  horse  tillage  after  the  sup- 
ports are  set. 

Peas  are  sown  so  that  the  seeds  are  one  to  two  inches  apart 
in  the  row.  The  plants  are  never  thinned,  except  occasionally 
by  cutworms.  The  depth  of  planting  varies  somewhat,  but  is 
usually  two  to  three  inches. 


112  COOL  SEASON  CROPS 

Peas  grown  for  canning  factories  are  usually  sown  with  a  grain 
drill  and  given  no  cultivation  whatever  after  planting.  When 
the  crop  is  ready  to  harvest  the  vines  are  cut  with  a  mowing 
machine  and  hauled  to  the  factory  where  the  peas  are  hulled  out 
by  special  machinery.  Some  varieties  mature  much  more  uni- 
formly than  others,  and  are  preferred  for  the  cannery  and  for 
market  because  the  entire  crop  is  ready  to  harvest  at  one  time. 
On  the  other  hand,  varieties  which  mature  their  crop  gradually  and 
have  a  long  picking  season  arc  preferable  for  the  home  garden. 
Small-seeded  varieties  of  peas  are  preferred  for  canning,  since  the 
trade  has  come  to  associate  small  size  with  superior  quality  in 
canned  peas. 

Sugar  Peas. — In  addition  to  the  common  garden  pea,  the 
immature  seeds  of  which  are  the  edible  product,  there  is  a  type 
of  pea  known  as  the  sugar  or  edible-podded  pea.  The  pods  are 
tender  and  juicy  and  are  gathered  for  eating  at  the  same  stage  of 
development  as  string  beans.  Their  chief  function  is  to  furnish 
a  substitute  for  string  beans  earlier  in  the  season  than  the  latter 
can  be  secured.  They  are  planted  at  the  same  time  and  handled 
in  the  same  way  as  other  garden  peas.  Most  varieties  are  tall 
and  require  support.  This  type  of  pea  is  seldom  seen  on  the 
markets  or  in  home  gardens.  It  deserves  more  attention  than  it 
is  receiving  at  the  present  time. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Name  nine  crops  that  quickly  reach  edible  maturity  and  thrive  only  in 

cool  weather. 

2.  What  is  the  most  widely  grown  salad  crop  in  America? 

3.  How  may  leaf  lettuce  of  large  size  be  grown? 

4.  What  is  meant  by  a  "cutting"  variety  of  leaf  lettuce? 

5.  How  does  hot,  dry  weather  affect  the  quality  of  lettuce? 

6.  How  long  does  it  take  to  grow  a  crop  of  leaf  lettuce? 

7.  What  are  the  uses  of  garden  cress? 

8.  What  are  the  essential  features  in  growing  garden  cress? 

9.  How  may  corn  salad  be  grown? 

10.  What  is  the  most  important  plant  grown  exclusively  for  greens,  in  America? 

11.  Contrast  northern  and  southern  methods  of  growing  spinach. 

12.  What  are  the  moisture  demands  of  spinach?    How  may  they  be  met? 

13.  Describe  the  method  of  harvesting  spinach. 

14.  What  are  the  characteristics  of  mustard  as  a  garden  crop? 

15.  Name  and  describe  the  three  types  of  radishes. 

16.  At  what  time  should  each  type  of  radish  be  planted?    When  is  each  har- 

vested?   How  long  will  each  remain  in  edible  condition? 

17.  Contrast  the  spring  and  fall  crops  of  turnips. 


QUESTIONS  113 

18.  Describe  the  kohlrabi  plant.    What  crop  does  kohlrabi  most  resemble 

in  cultural  requirements? 

19.  By  what  other  names  are  rutabagas  known? 

20.  How  do  rutabagas  differ  from  turnips? 

21.  In  what  part  of  the  country  are  rutabagas  an  important  crop? 

22.  What  are  the  two  types  of  garden  peas?    How  do  they  differ  in  hardiness 

and  quality? 

23.  How  does  hot  weather  affect  peas? 

24.  Classify  peas  according  to  size  of  plant. 

25.  How  far  apart  should  peas  be  planted? 

26.  How  are  peas  harvested  for  a  canning  factory? 

27.  What  are  "sugar"  peas? 


CHAPTER   XV 

TRANSPLANTED  CROPS  THAT  MATURE  BEFORE  THE 
HEAT  OF  SUMMER 


HEAD    LETTUCE 


In  head  lettuce  the  leaves  fold  over  one  another,  forming  a 
more  or  less  compact  head  somewhat  resembling  a  cabbage  in 
structure  (Fig.  63).  The  interior  leaves  are  perfectly  blanched 
and  the  flavor  is  much  more  delicate  than  that  of  leaf  lettuce. 


Head  lettuce  in  longitudinal  section,  showing  structure. 


Although  head  lettuce  can  be  successfully  grown  in  cool 
climates  from  seed  sown  in  the  open  ground,  the  cool  season  in 
central  latitudes  is  usually  so  short  that  the  lettuce  is  likely  to 
be  unable  to  complete  its  growth  before  the  advent  of  hot  weather. 
If  overtaken  by  hot  weather  rather  early  in  its  development  the 
lettuce  may  fail  to  form  any  heads  whatever.  If  the  hot  weather 
arrives  after  the  heads  have  started  to  form  the  injury  may  con- 
sist in  a  browning  of  the  edges  of  the  leaves  that  compose  the  head 
(sometimes  called  "  tip-burn  ")  and  the  development  of  a  bitter 
taste.  In  either  case  the  product  is  of  little  value.  It  is  only 
when  the  season  remains  cool  and  wet  unusually  late  that  a  satis- 
114 


TO  INSURE  A  CROP  OF  HEAD  LETTUCE 


115 


factory  crop  of  head  lettuce  can  be  produced  from  open  ground 
seeding  in  central  latitudes. 

To  insure  a  crop  of  head  lettuce,  except  in  cool  regions,  it  is 
necessary  to  start  the  plants  under  glass  at  least  six  weeks  before 
time  for  setting  them  in  the  open.  Where  open-air  gardening 
starts  before  April  1,  lettuce  plants  usually  may  be  transplanted 
about  April  15.  Therefore  the  seed  should  be  sown  by  the  first 
of  March.  It  may  be  sown  in  flats  in  greenhouses  or  in  the  soil 
of  a  hotbed.  In  either  case  the  plants  should  be  shifted  in  about 
two  weeks,  or  as  soon  as  they  are  large  enough  to  handle.  They 
may  be  planted  in  flats,  about  two  inches  apart  each  way  (Fig. 
64),  or  may  be  set  in  two  and  one-half  inch  pots.     The  latter 


Fig.  64. — Flats  of  shifted  lettuce  seedlings  on  greenhouse  bench. 

method  is  preferable,  for  plants  so  handled  are  less  sappy  at  the 
time  of  the  final  transplanting,  and  their  root  systems  are  not 
disturbed  in  the  operation.  However,  good  results  can  be  secured 
with  plants  from  flats  if  all  soil  and  weather  conditions  are  favor- 
able at  the  time  of  transplanting  and  care  is  taken  to  have  plenty  of 
soil  attached  to  the  roots  when  the  plants  are  taken  from  the  flats. 
Whether  in  flats  or  pots,  the  plants  should  be  transferred  in 
the  containers  to  a  coldframe  for  hardening-off,  at  least  ten  days 
before  it  is  expected  that  they  will  be  transplanted  into  the  open 
ground.  Whether  in  the  greenhouse,  hotbed  or  coldframe,  pots 
containing  lettuce  plants  should  be  plunged  to  the  rim  in  soil  or 


116 


TRANSPLANTED  CROPS 


sand.     This  is  to  prevent  the  soil  in  the  pots  from  drying  out 
too  rapidly. 

When  set  in  the  open  ground  the  lettuce  plants  should  be 
planted  twelve  inches  apart  in  the  row  in  order  to  allow  them 
sufficient  room  in  which  to  develop  (Fig.  65).  The  rows  may  be 
either  twelve  or  eighteen  inches  apart.  The  latter  distance  makes 
tillage  more  convenient. 

Thorough  cultivation  should  be  given  the  lettuce  from  the  time 
it  is  set  in  the  field,  in  order  that  moisture  may  be  conserved.  If 
the  weather  is  dry,  artificial  watering  is  an  advantage.  Shading 
with  screens  of  tobacco  cloth  or  similar  fabric  is  also  beneficial 

to  lettuce  in  case  the  weather 
should  be  slightly  too  warm 
and  dry. 

Constructing  Screens  for 
Shading  Lettuce. — If  lettuce 
is  to  be  grown  under  screens, 
there  are  two  ways  of  making 
these  screens.  The  more  usual 
method  is  to  set  posts  in  the 
ground  and  construct  a  frame- 
work about  seven  feet  high, 
over  as  large  an  area  as  it  is 
desired  to  shade.  The  tobacco 
cloth  is  stretched  over  the 
sides  and  ends  as  well  as  the 
top  of  this  frame,  making  a 
complete  enclosure  that  will 
subdue  the  intensity  of  the 
sunlight  and  retard  evaporation  of  moisture  from  the  soil  (Fig.  66). 
The  object  of  having  the  framework  so  high  is  to  enable  a  man  to 
stand  erect  while  working  under  it  in  tending  the  lettuce.  Another 
method  is  to  make  a  movable  screen  by  stretching  the  cloth  over 
an  inverted  V-shaped  frame  with  sides  two  to  three  feet  wide  and 
ten  to  twelve  feet  long.  If  the  frame  is  made  of  one  by  two-inch 
wooden  strips  it  will  be  sufficiently  light  to  be  easily  handled, 
and  can  be  placed  over  a  row  or  two  of  lettuce  at  any  time  desired. 
Some  varieties  of  head  lettuce  will  stand  more  heat  than  others 
and  these  sorts  should  be  selected  where  the  weather  is  likely  to 
be  getting  warm  when  the  lettuce  is  heading. 

In  localities  where  head  lettuce  can  be  grown  from  outdoor 


,;. 

t : 

Fig.   65. — A  well-developed   head  of   Hanson 
lettuce.     The  plant  is  over  a  foot 


EARLY  CABBAGE  117 

planting  of  seed,  the  method  of  culture  is  essentially  the  same  as 
for  leaf  lettuce  (see  p.  99)  except  that  the  individual  plants  require 
more  space.  They  should  be  thinned  to  a  foot  apart  in  the  row. 
This  should  be  done  early,  while  the  plants  are  still  very  small, 
and  before  they  have  a  chance  to  become  stunted  by  reason  of 
crowding. 


jred   with   "tobacco   cloth"   to   afford   partial   sh 
lettuce  and  similar  crops. 


COS   LETTUCE 


There  is  another  type  of  lettuce  somewhat  midway  in  structure 
between  leaf  and  head  lettuce.  This  is  known  as  cos  lettuce  or 
romaine  (Fig.  67).  The  leaves  grow  erect  and  are  tied  together 
at  the  top,  to  induce  blanching  of  the  inner  parts.  In  some  varie- 
ties the  outer  leaves  close  over  the  top,  so  that  tying  is  unnecessary. 
The  cultural  requirements  of  the  crop  are  essentially  the  same  as 
those  of  head  lettuce. 

EARLY    CABBAGE 

Early  cabbage  is  of  two  general  types,  the  conical-headed  and 
the  round-headed  (Figs.  68  and  69).  Until  recently,  the  very 
earliest  varieties  were  of  the  former  type,  but  now  there  are  also 
round-headed  sorts  that  are  extremely  early.  Both  types  demand 
the  same  kind  of  culture. 

Since  cabbage  thrives  best  when  the  weather  is  comparatively 
cool,  though  it  will  stand  somewhat  more  heat  than  will  head 


118 


TRANSPLANTED  CROPS 


lettuce,  the  early  crop  should  be  started  in  time  to  complete 
its  growth  before  the  normal  season  for  excessively  hot  weather 
(Fig.  70).  In  order  that  this  may  be  done,  it  is  necessary  to  start 
the  plants  under  glass  before  outdoor  gardening  can  begin.  If 
the  seeds  are  sown  in  hotbeds  from  February  20  to  March  1,  the 
plants  will  be  of  the  right  size  for  transplanting  about  April  15. 
Usually  the  plants  grown  from  seed  sown  in  hotbeds  are  not 
shifted  before  the  final  transplanting  to  the  field,  but  are  simply 


or  romaine. 


hardened-off  in  the  hotbed,  which  by  that  time  will  be  virtually 
the  same  as  a  coldframe,  since  the  heat  of  the  manure  will  have 
been  spent  or  the  fire  can  be  withheld.  In  some  parts  of  the 
South  early  cabbage  seed  is  sown  in  September  and  the  plants 
wintered  over  in  coldframes  for  early  spring  planting,  but  the 
method  just  described  is  the  one  usually  employed  in  the  corn 
belt  and  northward. 

Early  cabbage  bears  transplanting  very  readily.     It  is  not 
necessary  that  the  plants  be  taken  up  with  earth  adhering  to  the 


EARLY  CABBAGE 


119 


roots.  They  are  simply  pulled  from  the  seed-bed  after  thorough 
watering,  and  set  with  a  dibber  or  transplanting  machine  in  well- 
prepared  soil.  The  rows  should  be  far  enough  apart  to  permit 
of  tillage  with  a  horse,  and  the  plants  from  fifteen  to  twenty-four 


Fig.  GS. — Early  cabbage  of  the  round-headed  type:  Copenhagen  Market. 
Fig.  69. — Early  cabbage  of  the  conical-headed  type:  Jersey  Wakefield. 


Fig.  70. — Longitudinal  section  of  three  heads   of  conical  cabbage.     The  head  at  the  right 
is  the  most  solid  and  hence  most  desirable. 


inches  apart  in  the  row.    The  latter  distance  is  preferable  unless 
space  is  limited. 

Cabbage  requires  an  enormous  amount  of  tillage.  This  should 
include  both  cultivation  between  the  rows  and  hoeing  about  the 
plants.     Tillage  should  be  continued  as  late  as  possible  even 


120 


TRANSPLANTED  CROPS 


though   some  of   the  outer  leaves  may  be  broken  off    during 
the  operation. 

With  early  planting,  thorough  tillage,  an  abundance  of  moist- 
ure and  rich  soil,  there  is  usually  no  difficulty  in  growing  a  good 
crop  of  early  cabbage  for  June  cutting  in  the  corn  belt.  In  the 
South  it  may  be  grown  as  a  winter  crop,  and  in  the  far  North  it 
may  be  grown  any  time  in  the  summer.  Occasionally  cabbage 
worms  attack  the  crop  after  the  plants  have  begun  to  head.  They 
may  be  held  in  check  by  sprinkling  with  almost  any  kind  of  dry 
dust  while  the  plants  are  wet  with  dew.  Air-slaked  lime,  white 
hellebore  or  dry  road  dust  may  be  used. 


Fig.  71. — A  cauliflower  head  as  it  is  likely  to  develop  when  the  weather  is  too  hot  and  dry. 
Fig.  72. — A  typical  head  of  early  cauliflower  as  grown  in  a  favorable  season  in  the  corn  belt. 


EARLY    CAULIFLOWER 

Early  cauliflower  demands  much  the  same  conditions  as  early 
cabbage,  but  is  unable  to  endure  as  cool  or  as  warm  temperatures, 
and  is  much  more  seriously  affected  by  unfavorable  conditions. 
It  is  very  sensitive  to  drought  and  to  sudden  changes  in  tempera- 
ture. If  the  plants  are  stunted  by  too  cold  weather  or  insufficient 
moisture,  or  excessive  heat,  the  heads  may  either  fail  to  form,  or 
form  prematurely  while  the  plants  are  small  and  weak  and  unable 
to  produce  heads  of  marketable  size,  or  break  into  irregular 
growths  with  circlets  of  leaves  scattered  through  the  head  (Fig. 
71).  On  the  whole,  early  cauliflower  is  a  much  more  uncertain 
crop  than  early  cabbage  unless  all  conditions  of  soil  and  tempera- 


EARLY  CAULIFLOWER 


121 


ture  are  right.  It  belongs  in  regions  where  the  atmosphere  is 
humid  and  the  nights  are  cool,  and  succeeds  especially  well  near 
large  bodies  of  water.  In  the  South  it  thrives  as  a  winter  crop 
and  in  some  parts  of  the  North  may  be  grown  in  summer.  In  the 
interior  regions  of  the  central  states  it  is  even  harder  to  grow  than 
head  lettuce,  since  it  requires  a  longer  period  to  complete  its 
development  and  is  fully  as  sensitive  to  heat  and  drought.  How- 
ever, with  proper  care,  it  is  possible  to  produce  early  cauliflower 
most  seasons  even  in  the  corn  belt  (Fig.  72). 

The  plants  are  grown  the  same  as  the  early  cabbage  plants 
(Fig.  73),  but  the  seed  should  be  planted  a  week  earlier,  since  the 


for  transplanting. 


growth  is  slower,  and  large,  vigorous  plants  are  wanted.  Special 
care  should  be  taken  to  have  the  plants  thoroughly  hardened-off 
before  they  are  transplanted  into  the  open.  Otherwise  they  are 
likely  to  become  stunted,  and  never  produce  satisfactory  heads. 
The  plants  should  be  set  in  the  field  the  same  time  as  early  cab- 
bage. Plenty  of  space  should  be  allowed  between  the  plants  in 
order  that  each  may  be  able  to  secure  moisture  from  a  considerable 
area.  Two  by  three  feet  is  as  close  as  the  plants  should  usually  be 
set.  Thorough  and  frequent  tillage  should  also  be  given  to  assist 
in  retaining  moisture  in  the  soil.  Watering  with  liquid  manure 
when  the  plants  begin  to  head  is  sometimes  advised.    Cauliflower 


122 


TRANSPLANTED  CROPS 


seems  also  to  respond  readily  to  treatment  with  nitrate  of  soda. 
Three  applications  of  the  nitrate  may  be  made  at  intervals  of 
about  two  weeks.  One-fourth  ounce  per  plant  is  used  at 
each  application. 


Fig.  74. — Cauliflower  tied  up  for  blanching. 

Blanching  the  Heads. — Cauliflower  heads  must  not  be  allowed 
to  become  sun-burned,  for  that  would  injure  their  appearance 
and  flavor.  As  soon  as  the  heads  begin  to  form,  the  outer  leaves 
of  the  plant  are  drawn  up  together  and  secured  by  tying  at  the 
tips  (Fig.  74).  The  head  thus  develops  in  comparative  darkness 
and  remains  white  and  attractive.  Care  should  be  taken  to  allow 
plenty  of  space  above  the  head  when  it  is  tied;  otherwise  it  may 


QUESTIONS  123 

rot.  The  proper  time  for  cutting  the  head  is  just  as  soon  as  it 
reaches  full  size,  and  before  it  begins  to  break.  This  stage  can 
be  readily  determined  by  slightly  parting  the  leaves  at  the  north 
side  of  the  plant  and  examining  the  head.  The  heads  develop 
very  rapidly,  and,  unless  care  is  taken,  there  is  danger  of  letting 
them  stand  too  late. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  How  does  head  lettuce  differ  from  leaf  lettuce? 

2.  Under  what  conditions  can  head  lettuce  be  grown  as  an  outdoor  crop 

from  seed  sown  in  the  open? 

3.  What  happens  to  head  lettuce  if  the  weather  becomes  too  hot? 

4.  Describe  the  process  of  growing  head  lettuce  by  the  transplanting  method. 

5.  Describe  two  methods  of  making  screens  for  protecting  head  lettuce  from 

the  sun. 

6.  Describe  the  structure  and  cultural  requirements  of  cos  lettuce  or  romaine. 

7.  What  are  the  two  types  of  early  cabbage? 

8.  How  and  when  are  cabbage  plants  started  for  the  early  crop? 

9.  How  is  early  cabbage  transplanted? 

10.  What  are  the  essential  points  in  the  culture  of  early  cabbage? 

11.  How  does  early  cauliflower  compare  with  early  cabbage  as  to  behavior 

under  unfavorable  conditions  of  temperature  and  moisture? 

12.  How  are  the  heads  of  cauliflower  protected  from  the  sun? 

13.  What  plants  mentioned  in  this  chapter  are  commercially  grown  in  your 

locality? 

14.  If  none  of  them  are  grown,  give  reasons. 


CHAPTER  XVI 
LATE  CABBAGE  AND  SIMILAR  CROPS 

LATE  CABBAGE 

Late  cabbage  is  of  three  general  types:  Common  or  white 
cabbage,  savoy  cabbage  and  red  cabbage.  The  first  named  is 
by  far  the  most  important.  It  is  handled  by  the  carload  and  is  a 
staple  product  on  the  markets  from  late  fall  till  early  spring. 
Savoy  cabbage  differs  from  the  ordinary  cabbage  in  that  the  leaves 
are  darker  green,  and  very  much  more  wrinkled  and  curled  (Fig. 
75) .  Sometimes  it  is  referred  to  on  the  market  as  "  curly  cabbage." 
It  is  more  delicate  in  flavor  than  common  cabbage,  but  as  yet  is 
very  little  grown.  Red  cabbage  is  used  chiefly  for  pickling  and 
its  demand  for  that  purpose  is  quite  limited.  The  culture  of  all 
three  types  of  late  cabbage  is  essentially  the  same. 

Climatic  Requirements. — Late  cabbage  makes  its  principal 
growth  during  the  cool  weather  of  autumn,  but  since  its  period 
of  growth  is  much  longer  than  the  normal  period  of  cool  autumn 
weather  in  warm  climates,  it  is  not  reliable  as  a  commercial  crop 
except  in  locations  so  far  north  that  the  summers  as  well  as  the 
autumns  are  comparatively  cool.  Under  favorable  conditions  it 
produces  enormous  crops,  but  as  its  culture  is  extended  southward 
smaller  heads  are  produced  and  the  crop  becomes  more  uncertain. 
In  the  corn  belt  it  is  much  less  reliable  than  early  cabbage  because 
the  plants  have  to  make  much  of  their  growth  during  hot  weather, 
and  do  not  outgrow  their  stunted  condition  when  favorable 
weather  finally  arrives.  It  is  only  in  seasons  that  are  abnormally 
cool  and  wet,  or  on  rich  bottom  lands,  that  late  cabbage  makes 
good  crops  in  central  latitudes.  However,  market  gardeners 
usually  plant  small  areas,  and  sometimes  have  a  crop  to  sell. 
Farther  north,  immense  areas  are  planted  and  large  yields  regularly 
harvested. 

Growing  the  Plants. — The  seed  for  late  cabbage  should  be 
sown  in  a  carefully  prepared  seed-bed  in  the  open  ground  four  or 
five  weeks  before  time  for  setting  the  plants  in  the  field.  Since 
the  days  are  longer  than  when  early  cabbage  plants  are  grown, 
the  plants  reach  transplanting  size  in  a  shorter  time.  Transplant- 
ing may  take  place  from  June  15  to  July  15.  When  large  areas 
124 


PRECAUTIONS  FOR  SUCCESSFUL  TRANSPLANTING        125 

are  to  be  planted,  several  sowings  of  seed  may  be  made  in  order 
to  distribute  the  transplanting  over  a  considerable  period  and 
have  all  plants  of  the  right  size  when  transplanted.  The  latest 
plantings  are  made  of  varieties  capable  of  developing  in  a  shorter 
time  than  the  earlier  plantings. 

Precautions  for  Successful  Transplanting. — Since  the  weather 
is  likely  to  be  rather  hot  and  dry  when  late  cabbage  is  transplanted, 
precaution  should  be  taken  that  the  plants  do  not  suffer  from 


Fig.   75. — Savoy  cabbage.     Delicate  in  flavor  but  little  grown. 

lack  of  moisture.  The  best  results  are  likely  to  be  secured  if  the 
cabbage  is  transplanted  on  land  that  was  plowed  early  when  it 
contained  an  abundance  of  moisture  and  that  has  been  harrowed 
frequently  until  the  time  for  transplanting.  To  prevent  too  rapid 
loss  of  moisture  from  the  plants  themselves,  the  tops  of  the  leaves 
should  be  twisted  off.  (See  chapter  on  transplanting.)  Some- 
times, in  order  to  avoid  the  risks  attending  transplanting  in  dry 
weather,  the  seed  of  late  cabbage  is  sown  where  the  crop  is  to 
mature. 


126 


LATE  CABBAGE  AND  SIMILAR  CROPS 


Late  cabbage  should  be  planted  on  rich,  moist  soil,  and  every 
care  taken  to  conserve  moisture  and  promote  rapid  growth  (Fig. 
76).  Thorough  and  frequent  tillage  should  be  given.  The  plants 
should  be  far  enough  apart  to  allow  full  development.  Two  and 
one-half  by  three  and  one-half  feet  are  good  distances  for  large 
growing  varieties.  In  regions  especially  well  adapted  to  late 
cabbage,  planting  may  be  somewhat  closer  in  order  that  the  heads 
may  not  grow  too  large;  but  in  other  localities  the  difficulty  is 
rather  to  make  them  grow  large  enough,  and  wide  planting  favors 


Fig.   76. — Field  of  cabbage  grown  under  irriga 


Greeley,  Colorado. 


larger  development,  since  it  makes  later  tillage  possible  and  allows 
each  plant  a  larger  foraging  area,  and  hence  more  moisture  and 
more  plant  food. 

Cabbage  worms  are  likely  to  be  a  serious  enemy  to  the  late 
cabbage  crop.  Early  in  the  season,  the  plants  may  be  sprayed 
with  a  mineral  poison,  such  as  Paris  green  or  arsenate  of  lead; 
but  after  they  have  commenced  to  head,  applications  of  white 
hellebore  are  considered  preferable.  This  material  may  be  applied 
as  the  dry  powder,  or  mixed  with  water  at  the  rate  of  one  pound 
to  fifty  gallons  and  applied  as  a  spray. 


DISEASES  OF  CABBAGE  127 

Diseases  of  Cabbage. — There  are  several  diseases  of  cabbage 
which  may  become  serious  where  the  crop  is  grown  extensively. 
One  of  the  most  prevalent  of  these  is  known  as  the  club  root,  so 
named  on  account  of  the  peculiar  malformation  of  the  roots  of 
the  infected  plant.  In  severe  cases  this  disease  so  weakens  the 
plant  that  it  does  not  produce  a  good  head.  Spores  form  in  vast 
numbers  in  the  infected  roots  and  remain  in  the  soil  ready  to 
transmit  the  disease  to  the  succeeding  crop.  The  same  disease 
attacks  cauliflower,  kale,  kohlrabi,  turnips  and  several  other 
members  of  the  mustard  family,  including  weeds,  notably  the 
shepherd's  purse  and  hedge  mustard.  Experiments  show  that 
the  germs  of  the  disease  may  remain  in  the  soil  for  as  many  as 
four  years  following  the  production  of  a  badly  diseased  crop, 
even  when  no  crops  subject  to  the  disease  are  grown  upon  the 
land  during  that  time. 

To  avoid  serious  injury  from  this  disease,  it  is  best  to  prevent 
the  land  from  ever  becoming  badly  infected  with  its  germs.  This 
can  usually  be  done  by  practicing  a  systematic  rotation  of  crops, 
so  that  cabbage  or  any  other  crop  subject  to  this  disease  is  grown 
only  once  in  three  or  four  years  upon  the  same  land.  A  slight 
infection  does  not  seriously  damage  the  crop,  and  if  another  crop 
of  the  same  kind  is  not  grown  for  three  or  four  years,  the  disease 
does  not  gain  much  headway.  This  method  of  avoiding  injury 
is  applicable  only  to  fields  which  have  not  become  badly  infected. 

If  it  becomes  necessary  to  plant  cabbage  on  a  piece  of  land 
that  has  previously  produced  a  badly  diseased  crop,  the  stumps, 
roots  and  all  other  refuse  from  the  diseased  crop  should  be  re- 
moved immediately  after  the  harvest,  and  destroyed  by  burning 
or  burial.  Refuse  from  a  diseased  crop  should  not  be  thrown  upon 
the  compost  heap  or  fed  to  animals,  for  it  has  been  found  that 
manure  from  animals  fed  upon  diseased  cabbage  or  turnips  will 
transmit  the  disease  to  otherwise  uninfected  soil. 

In  addition  to  the  removal  of  the  refuse  from  the  preceding 
crop,  a  badly  infected  field  should  be  treated  with  lime  used  at 
the  rate  of  75  to  150  bushels  per  acre.  The  lime  is  more  effective 
if  applied  considerably  in  advance  of  the  setting  of  the  plants. 
It  is  usually  applied  broadcast  and  allowed  to  become  air-slaked 
before  being  plowed  under.  Then  if  the  land  can  be  replowed 
before  setting  the  plants,  it  is  an  advantage. 

Cabbage  plants  may  become  infected  in  the  seed-bed;  in  fact, 
they  seem  more  subject  to  infection  while  young  than  after  they 


128  LATE  CABBAGE  AND  SIMILAR  CROPS 

oecome  older.  It  is  therefore  extremely  important  in  preparing 
the  seed-bed  to  use  only  soil  in  which  plants  subject  to  the  disease 
has  never  been  grown.  As  an  additional  precaution  it  would  be 
well  to  mix  a  small  amount  of  air-slaked  lime  with  the  soil  when 
preparing  the  seed-bed. 

When  setting  plants  in  the  field,  if  any  with  diseased  roots 
are  noticed,  they  should  be  discarded;  and  if  very  many  diseased 
plants  are  found,  it  might  be  the  wiser  course  to  discard  the  whole 
bed  and  procure  plants  from  some  other  source,  or  even  stay  out 
of  the  cabbage  business  that  season.  Without  plants  free  from 
disease  at  the  time  of  setting,  it  is  almost  impossible  to  produce 
a  good  crop  of  cabbage.  On  the  other  hand,  experiments  show 
that  by  using  plants  grown  in  an  uninfected  seed-bed  it  is  some- 
times possible  to  produce  a  fair  crop  of  cabbage  in  a  badly  infected 
field,  without  liming.  If,  however,  diseased  plants  are  set,  the 
crop  will  be  a  failure  even  if  the  field  has  been  limed.  The  best 
plan  is  to  grow  the  plants  in  uninfected  soil,  and  set  them  in  an 
uninfected  field  or  one  that  has  been  limed. 

i  Other  diseases  of  cabbage  are  the  black  rot  and  the  wilt. 
Both  of  these  can  be  controlled  somewhat  by  rotation  and  by 
qare  inniiJvoiding  infected  soil  in  the  seed-bed..  Germs  of  the  black 
rot  mayiials0.be  carried  on  the  seed.  If  there  is  reason  to  fear 
this .  disease,  •  the  seed  should  be  soaked  for  fifteen  minutes  in  a 
dolifttioni  oi I  corrosive  sublimate  or  formalin  before  planting.  If 
borilosive  i sublimate' jis, used,  one  ounce  of  the  poison  is  sufficient 
tojimake  eight  gallons ; of nthe  solution;  and  one  fluid  ounce  of  f or- 
maliuf  isJeaobQlugh,  ,ta  make,  two  gallons  of  solution  of  that  material, 
in;  i  making  i small;  quantities  ;Qfu  these  solutions  care  should  be 
jfcaJqeni  to  airioid.  lhaving  .them  too.  strong.  If  diseased  cabbage  plants 
apfjeaminl  the..- eeedfbedi, they,. should, (be,  discarded  when  trans- 
pl»ntihg:ii/i  to  9§fiddj3o  bes£  ■  !>•>'; 

If  cabbage  is.te^bkgro.itohin  a  locality  badly  infected  with  the 
;wiib^(>akp  'Miojwnsas Viyello^s'!).,  la  ,<wil;trresi$tant  strain  of  seed 
fefaduld*b0rtti^ed)i'.'/  b-.itrfiJ  sd  bluoda  btefl  b9to9ini  t 
9vtto9B9  9iom  ai  --.ail  '•41,TB'»tA,iJiife^L;dwM<,  051  oi  ST  ., 
.atfieiq  9ffo  io  sniJvtea  9dd  to  doa&vba  ai  vldmsbiaaQO  bs 
l)'>jA§.-?fiPW&Ff$<  jW^b,  ,late  cabbage,  late  (cauU%ver(1  is. jpym  more 
^n^gra^ve^hiijts,  denian^for  ftqolm-ss  and  moistur^.,^?  IJarder 
to  grow  in  warm  climate  than  early  cauUflpwei^/f^rt^ie,  ^f?un$ 
R Wft  Pffr WWW,  5a  PW®&  ■%!  normal  heat  imfj,  j&pU§j$  c?|  ™ 


BROCCOLI  129 

where  the  summers  are  warm.  It  delights  in  the. cool,  moist  air 
of  the  ocean  breeze,  and  reaches  its  highest  development  in  loca- 
tions like  eastern  Long  Island.  It  may  also  be  grown  in  northern 
interior  regions  like  Wisconsin  and  Minnesota,  but  even  here 
succeeds  best  near  large  areas  of  water.  Under  irrigation  it  thrives 
in  the  high  altitudes  of  Colorado.  In  central  Illinois,  Indiana 
and  Missouri  the  summers  are  usually  so  hot  and  dry  that  late 
cauliflower  is  a  failure,  and  few  gardeners  in  these  regions  attempt 
its  culture.    Cauliflower  thrives  as  a  winter  crop  in  California. 

Wherever  late  cabbage  does  exceptionally  well,  late  cauli- 
flower may  usually  be  grown  with  at  least  a  fair  degree  of  success. 
The  method  of  starting  the  plants  is  essentially  the  same  as  for 
cabbage,  except  that  even  more  care  is  taken  in  the  preparation 
of  the  seed-bed,  and  the  plants  are  started  slightly  more  in  advance 
of  the  transplanting  season  owing  to  their  slower  growth  at  the 
beginning.  The  reason  for  greater  care  in  the  preparation  of  the 
seed-bed  is  that  the  seed  is  very  expensive,  and  it  does  not  pay 
to  run  the  risk  of  getting  a  poor  stand  through  negligence  in  the 
preparation  of  the  seed-bed  or  in  the  matter  of  watering. 

When  transplanted  to  the  field  late  cauliflower  needs  even 
more  room  than  late  cabbage,  owing  to  its  greater  demand  for 
moisture.  The  failure  of  late  cauliflower  to  produce  satisfactory 
heads  is  sometimes  caused  by  too  close  planting.  Large,  late 
varieties  should  be  planted  at  least  three  by  four  feet,  and  some- 
times even  four  by  four  feet  is  advised. 

BROCCOLI 

Broccoli  resembles  late  cauliflower  in  cultural  requirements 
and  form  of  head  (Fig.  77).  However,  it  demands  a  longer  season 
of  cool  weather  in  which  to  develop,  and  it  is  little  grown  in  this 
country.  In  France  and  England  it  is  more  prominent  than  cauli- 
flower and  is  used  as  a  substitute  for  it  at  certain  seasons  of  the 
year.  In  some  parts  of  southern  Europe  it  is  planted  in  the  fall, 
grows  all  winter,  and  then  heads  the  following  spring.  Farther 
north,  it  may  be  planted  in  early  summer  and  grow  all  the  fall 
without  heading;  then  with  slight  protection  survive  the  winter 
and  produce  heads  in  the  spring.  In  America  the  winters  are 
too  cold  where  the  summers  are  not  too  warm  to  practice  this 
method  of  handling  the  crop.  However,  broccoli  is  now  being 
grown  commercially  in  certain  parts  of  Oregon,  and  is  shipped  to 
eastern  markets  during  the  winter. 


130  LATE  CABBAGE  AND  SIMILAR  CROPS 

BRUSSELS   SPROUTS 

Brussels  sprouts  differ  from  cabbage  in  that  the  central  stem 
of  the  plant  is  elongated,  so  that  the  leaves  remain  separate 
instead  of  forming  a  compact  head,  and  that  miniature  heads  are 
formed  in  the  axils  of  the  leaves.  These  little  heads  or  "  sprouts  " 
are  about  an  inch  in  diameter,  and  may  be  so  numerous  as  to 
completely  hide  the  stem  (Fig.  78).  A  good  yield  is  one  quart 
of  the  "  sprouts  "  to  the  plant. 


Fig.  77. — A  typical  plant  of  broccoli  as  grown  in  Illinois.    In  Oregon 
larger  and  more  compact  heads  are  produced. 

Climatic  Requirements. — A  long,  cool  season  and  plenty  of 
moisture  are  essential  to  the  proper  development  of  Brussels 
sprouts.  The  plants  will  stand  considerable  heat,  but  the 
"  sprouts  "  remain  little  tufts  of  loose  leaves  instead  of  becoming 
compact  heads,  unless  the  weather  is  cool  and  moist.  The  culture 
of  Brussels  sprouts  is  practicable  only  in  locations  where  late 


CLIMATIC  REQUIREMENTS 


131 


cabbage  is  a  certain  crop.  The  time  required  for  full  development 
is  somewhat  longer  than  that  for  most  varieties  of  late  cabbage, 
so  that  the  planting  should  be  done  no  later  than  for  the  first  of 
the  late  cabbage. 

The  plants  are  started  in  seed-beds  and  transplanted  the  same 
as  late  cabbage.  They  also  require  essentially  the  same  kind  and 
amount  of  tillage,  and  need  an  abundance  of  plant  food  and  moist- 


Fig.  78. — Plant  of  Brussels  sprouts  after  removal  of  side  leaves. 

ure.  After  the  sprouts  have  formed  they  seem  to  develop  better 
if  the  leaves  are  cut  from  the  sides  of  the  stalk.  The  tuft  of  leaves 
at  the  top,  however,  should  be  left  intact.  The  sprouts  complete 
their  development  late  in  autumn,  and  the  quality  is  thought  to 
be  improved  by  slight  freezing.  The  sprouts  may  be  cut  from  the 
stalk  in  the  field  or  the  entire  plant  may  be  taken  up  and  stored. 


132  LATE  CABBAGE  AND  SIMILAR  CROPS 

Brussels  sprouts  are  considered  to  be  the  most  delicately 
flavored  vegetable  of  the  cabbage  family,  and  where  they  can  be 
successfully  grown  they  form  a  valuable  addition  to  the  list  of 
vegetables  for  the  home  garden,  as  well  as  being  a  profitable  crop 
commercially.  They  are  not  commercially  grown  in  the  corn 
belt;  and  only  in  occasional  seasons,  when  the  weather  is  abnor- 
mally cool,  will  they  yield  a  satisfactorj^  crop  there.  The  large 
city  markets  of  the  Middle  West  are  supplied  principally  with 
the  product  from  California.  Eastern  markets  are  supplied  largely 
from  Long  Island.    The  crop  also  thrives  well  in  Ontario. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Name  the  three  general  types  of  late  cabbage  and  state  the  relative 

importance  and  particular  uses  of  each. 

2.  Under  what  climatic  conditions  can  late  cabbage  be  most  successfully 

grown? 

3.  How  are  the  plants  grown  for  the  late  crop  of  cabbage?    At  what  time 

are  they  transplanted? 

4.  What  precautions  are  necessary  in  transplanting  late  cabbage? 

5.  How  may  a  sufficient  moisture  supply  be  maintained  for  growing  late 

cabbage? 

6.  How  may  cabbage  worms  be  controlled? 

7.  Describe  the  disease  known  as  "club-root"  of  cabbage.    How  may  trouble 

from  this  disease  be  avoided? 

8.  How  may  trouble  from  the  black  rot  and  the  wilt  of  cabbage  be  avoided? 

9.  How  does  late  cauliflower  compare  with  early  cauliflower  in  ability  to 

make  a  crop  in  warm  climates? 

10.  Mention  some  localities  where  late  cauliflower  can  be  grown  successfully. 

What  sort  of  climate  have  these  localities? 

1 1 .  How  are  plants  grown  for  the  late  crop  of  cauliflow  er? 

12.  Why  must  late  cauliflower  plants  be  set  far  apart? 

13.  Describe  the  broccoli  plant,  and  discuss  the  importance  of  the  crop  in 

different  parts  of  the  world. 

14.  Describe  the  structure  of  a  plant  of  Brussels  sprouts  and  compare  it 

with  the  cabbage  plant. 

15.  Under  what   climatic   conditions   can  Brussels  sprouts  be  successfully 

grown? 

16.  What  particular  attention  do  Brussels  sprouts  need  after  the  miniature 

heads  have  formed? 


CHAPTER   XVII 
CELERY 

Within  recent  years  celery  has  increased  greatly  in  importance 
among  vegetable  crops.  Formerly  it  was  found  only  on  the  tables 
of  the  rich,  or  used  upon  special  occasions  like  Thanksgiving  and 
Christmas.  Now  it  is  common  in  any  but  the  smallest  markets 
a  large  part  of  the  year,  and  is  considered  more  in  the  nature  of 
a  staple  vegetable  than  a  luxury,  as  was  formerly  the  case.  How- 
ever, it  has  not  become  common  in  home  gardens,  and  its  commer- 
cial culture  is  confined  principally  to  particular  areas  where  con- 
ditions are  especially  favorable  to  its  growth. 

Celery  demands  cool  weather,  a  soil  rich  in  humus,  and  an 
enormous  quantity  of  water.  Its  period  of  growth  extends  over 
a  longer  season  than  the  cool  spring  or  autumn  weather  of  central 
latitudes.  It  is  therefore  grown  principally  as  a  summer  and  fall 
crop  in  the  North  or  a  winter  crop  in  the  extreme  South.  It  may 
also  be  grown  as  a  summer  crop  in  the  high  altitudes  of  the 
mountain  regions,  and  to  some  extent  as  a  fall  crop  in  the  central 
prairie  regions.  Celery  culture  has  reached  its  highest  develop- 
ment on  reclaimed  muck  swamps  in  cool  climates,  where  the  soil 
is  composed  principally  of  organic  matter  and  the  water  table  is 
within  a  foot  or  two  of  the  surface.  These  soils  are  so  loose  and 
"  springy  "  that  horses  working  on  them  must  be  equipped  with 
broad  blocks  of  wood  on  their  feet  to  prevent  their  miring  down. 
One  of  the  most  famous  celery  regions  of  this  character  is  located 
at  Kalamazoo,  Michigan.  The  great  celery  fields  of  California 
are  also  located  on  similar  soil. 

The  chief  difficulties  in  growing  celery  in  ordinary  localities 
are  excess  of  heat  and  deficiency  of  moisture.  The  latter  may  be 
overcome  by  furrow  irrigation  in  the  arid  mountainous  regions 
of  the  West  or  by  overhead  sprinkling  in  the  intensive  market 
gardens  of  the  East.  On  upland  soil  that  cannot  be  artificially 
watered,  celery  is  an  uncertain  crop  except  in  unusually  wet 
seasons.  In  central  localities,  when  the  summer  is  so  wet  and  cold 
that  corn  almost  refuses  to  grow,  celery  nourishes  luxuriantly; 
in  ordinary  years  it  will  make  a  fair  crop  on  rich  soil,  if  given 

133 


134  CELERY 

careful  attention  and  occasional  watering.  For  market  purposes, 
however,  it  should  be  grown  only  where  conditions  are  most 
favorable.  It  is  a  crop  requiring  a  large  amount  of  hand  labor, 
and  its  culture  should  not  be  undertaken,  except  in  a  small  way, 
by  persons  unfamiliar  with  the  crop. 

The  Early  and  the  Late  Crop. — Market  growers  in  Michigan 
and  similar  latitudes  recognize  two  distinct  crops  of  celery — early 
and  late — though  at  the  harvest  one  merges  into  the  other,  for 
successive  plantings  result  in  a  continuous  supply  after  the  market- 
ing season  opens.  The  early  crop  is  put  in  the  field  as  soon  as 
conditions  will  permit,  usually  by  May  1,  and  makes  its  growth 
during  the  summer  months.  It  is  usually  harvested  in  August. 
It  is  not  feasible  to  grow  celery  maturing  at  this  time  except  where 
the  summers  are  relatively  cool  and  the  soil  well  supplied  with 
moisture.  The  late  crop  is  usually  set  in  the  field  from  June  20 
to  July  15.  Outside  the  regular  commercial  celery  regions,  the 
late  crop  alone  should  be  attempted.  Celery  is  such  a  slow-growing 
crop  that  in  central  localities  there  is  not  time  for  it  to  complete 
its  development  before  hot  weather,  even  if  started  very  early  in 
the  spring;  and  the  product  is  likely  to  be  small  in  quantity  and 
poor  in  quality  if  its  principal  growth  is  made  during  a  period  of 
high  temperature  and  deficient  rainfall.  However,  the  late  crop 
makes  its  principal  growth  and  develops  its  edible  portions  chiefly 
during  September  and  October,  after  the  fall  rains  have  usually 
become  abundant  and  the  weather  is  cool. 

Growing  Celery  Plants. — Plants  for  both  the  early  and  the 
late  crops  are  grown  from  seed  planted  in  carefully  prepared  soil 
from  three  to  four  months  before  the  plants  are  wanted  for  setting 
in  the  field.  This  means  that  seed  for  the  early  crop  should  be 
sown  in  January  and  for  the  late  crop  in  March  or  early  April. 
Greenhouse  facilities  are  almost  necessary  for  growing  the  early 
plants,  while  a  hotbed  or  coldframe  would  answer  the  purpose 
for  the  late  plants.  In  fact,  plants  for  a  late  crop  are  sometimes 
grown  in  an  open  seed-bed,  but  this  method  is  less  reliable  than 
starting  the  plants  under  more  completely  controlled  conditions. 
Since  the  seeds  are  very  small  and  germinate  slowly,  it  is  best  to 
sow  them  in  a  flat  or  box  of  carefully  prepared  soil.  The  seed 
should  be  covered  very  lightly,  and  the  soil  kept  moist.  As  an 
aid  in  preserving  the  moisture,  a  pane  of  glass  or  a  newspaper 
should  be  laid  over  the  box.  As  soon  as  the  plants  appear  above 
the  ground  the  covering  may  be  removed. 


TRANSPLANTING  CELERY  PLANTS 


135 


As  soon  as  the  plants  are  large  enough  to  handle  (Fig.  79)  they 
should  be  pricked  out  into  other  flats,  being  placed  about  two 
inches  apart  each  way  (Fig.  80).  These  flats  may  be  placed  in  a 
coldframe  as  soon  as  the  weather  is  sufficiently  warm,  and  the 
sash  should  be  kept  off  as  much  as  possible  (Fig.  81).  The  plants 
should  receive  careful  attention  and  frequent  watering.  Here 
they  are  allowed  to  grow  until  needed  for  transplanting.    If  the 


Fig.  79. — A  flat  of  celery  seedlings  ready  for  pricking  out. 

Fig.  80. — A  flat  of  celery  seedlings  immediately  after  being  pricked  out  from  the  flat  in 
which  the  seeds  were  sown. 


tops  grow  too  tall  in  the  meantime  they  may  be  clipped  with 
sheep  shears  or  a  sickle. 

Transplanting  Celery  Plants. — At  the  time  of  transplanting 
the  soil  should  be  well  supplied  with  moisture,  either  as  a  result 
of  recent  rainfall  or  of  thorough  tillage  following  early  preparation. 
If  the  spot  where  the  celery  is  to  be  planted  can  be  partially  shaded, 
it  will  be  an  advantage,  both  in  retaining  moisture  before  the 


136 


CELERY 


celery  is  planted  and  in  protecting  the  plants  from  the  glaring  sun. 
For  this  reason  the  home  supply  of  celery  is  sometimes  grown 
between  the  rows  of  grapes  in  a  vineyard,  or  between  rows  of 
sweet  corn  planted  wide  apart.  If  the  space  between  the  rows 
has  been  thoroughly  cultivated  the  soil  will  usually  be  quite 
moist  even  though  much  moisture  has  been  used  in  growing  the 
corn  or  grapes. 

The  usual  distance  for  planting  celery  is  six  inches  between 
the  plants  in  the  row.  The  distance  between  the  rows  depends 
upon  the  method  of  blanching  to  be  employed,  but  is  usually 


Fig.  81. — Celery  plants  in  coldframe,  ready  for  transplanting  to  the  field. 

from  two  and  one-half  to  five  feet.  The  plants  are  ordinarily 
set  with  a  dibber,  without  much  earth  adhering  to  the  roots.  If 
the  weather  is  warm,  a  large  portion  of  the  top  of  each  plant  is 
cut  or  twisted  off.    (See  chapter  on  transplanting.) 

Celery  may  be  planted  either  in  trenches  or  on  the  level. 

Planting  in  trenches  has  the  advantage  of  placing  the  plants 
in  contact  with  moister  soil  and  securing  partial  shade,  especially 
if  the  trench  is  deep.  A  further  advantage  is  that  less  banking 
is  required  to  blanch  the  crop.  The  chief  disadvantages  of  the 
trench  method  are  that  a  heavy  rain  is  likely  to  bury  the  newly 


BLANCHING  CELERY  *  137 

set  plants  in  the  earth  and  necessitate  much  hand  labor  in  digging 
them  out,  and  that  some  difficulty  is  experienced  in  properly 
cultivating  the  plants  in  the  bottom  of  the  trench.  However, 
this  latter  difficulty  is  not  serious  if  the  trench  is  not  over  six 
inches  deep,  for  in  that  case  a  double  wheel  hoe,  equipped  with 
two  narrow  cultivator  teeth,  can  be  run  astride  the  row.  As  the 
plants  grow,  the  trench  is  gradually  filled  with  earth  during  the 
process  of  cultivating. 

In  irrigated  regions  of  the  West,  celery  is  sometimes  planted 
in  double  rows,  with  one  row  on  each  edge  of  the  irrigation  furrow. 
Following  an  irrigation,  the  soil  in  the  furrow  is  broken  up  by 
means  of  an  especially  constructed  cultivator  drawn  by  one  horse 
walking  midway  between  two  double  rows.     Two  men  are  re- 


Fig.  82. — A  Michigan  celery  field.     Blanching  the  early  crop  with  boards. 

quired  to  guide  the  cultivator  since  there  are  two  sets  of  shovels 
and  handles  for  cultivating  two  double  rows  at  a  time. 

Blanching  Celery. — Whether  grown  in  trenches  or  on  the  level, 
the  celery  must  be  blanched.  This  is  accomplished  by  excluding 
the  light  from  the  growing  celery.  The  early  crops  are  usually 
blanched  by  setting  up  boards  on  either  side  of  the  row,  but  the 
late  crop  is  ordinarily  banked  up  with  earth.  The  reason  for 
blanching  the  early  crop  with  boards  rather  than  earth  is  that 
banking  with  earth  in  warm  weather  is  likely  to  cause  the  celery 
to  rot.  Only  varieties  that  blanch  with  comparative  ease,  known 
as  self-blanching  varieties,  are  used  for  the  early  crop,  since  these 
sorts  alone  can  be  satisfactorily  blanched  with  boards.  Boards 
twelve  inches  wide  and  twelve  or  fourteen  feet  long  are  used. 


138 


CELERY 


They  are  laid  flat  on  the  ground  on  either  side  of  a  row  of  celery, 
with  one  edge  close  to  the  base  of  the  celery  plants,  then  raised 
up  and  the  top  edges  drawn  as  close  together  as  the  presence  of 
the  foliage  will  permit  (Fig.  82).  The  boards  on  either  side  of 
the  row  are  held  together  at  the  top  by  a  clasp  of  wire  or  a  block 
of  wood  tacked  to  the  edges  of  the  two  boards.  In  place  of  boards, 
strips  of  especially  prepared  material  resembling  roofing  paper 
may  be  employed.  The  strips  are  fourteen  inches  wide  and  100 
feet  long.    They  are  held  in  place  by  wire  arches. 

The  late  crop  is  almost  invariably  banked  with  earth  if  it  is 
to  be  blanched  in  the  field.    In  the  case  of  the  trench-grown  celery 


• 


the  earthing-up  process  really  begins  with  the  filling  of  the  trench 
by  cultivation.  Subsequently  the  earth  is  banked  up  about  the 
plants  the  same  as  if  they  were  planted  on  the  level,  the  main 
difference  being  that  less  earth  is  required  to  complete  the  process. 
In  either  case,  care  must  be  taken  to  avoid  getting  dirt  into  the 
"  hearts  "  of  the  plants.  For  this  reason  the  plants  are  usually 
"  handled  "  before  being  banked.  The  "  handling  "  consists  in 
gathering  the  leaf  stalks  together  in  one  hand,  and  drawing  up 
the  earth  and  packing  it  about  the  plant  with  the  other  hand 
until  there  is  sufficient  earth  to  hold  the  stalks  in  place.  Earth 
is  then  drawn  up  with  a  hoe  until  only  the  tops  of  the  leaves  are 


BLANCHING  CELERY 


139 


left  exposed.  This  first  handling  and  banking  is  usually  done 
when  the  plants  are  about  a  foot  high.  In  the  case  of  trench-grown 
plants,  some  handling  may  be  necessary  before  the  trench  is  filled. 
As  the  plants  grow,  additional  earth  must  be  placed  upon  the 
bank  and  drawn  up  close  to  the  plants  in  order  that  they  may  be 
blanched  nearly  to  the  tips  (Figs.  83  and  84).  A  cultivator  or  a 
one-horse  plow  may  be  used  to  loosen  up  the  dirt  to  be  used  in 


Fig.   84. — Earth-blanched  celery  as  dug  from  the  field 


banking.  There  are  also  special  celery  hillers  in  use  which  greatly 
facilitate  the  operation  of  banking.  Banking  can  be  much  more 
readily  done  in  a  soil  containing  an  abundance  of  sand  in  a  moist 
condition  than  in  an  ordinary  silt  or  clay  loam,  for  a  bank  of 
moist,  sandy  soil  can  be  made  to  retain  its  position  much  like  a 
founder's  moulding  sand. 

Sometimes,  instead  of  being  blanched  in  the  field,  late  celery 
intended  for  winter  storage  is  allowed  to  remain  green  until  the 


140 


CELERY 


85. — Bed  of  "new  cslery  culture"  celery,  showing  board  in  place  to  blanch  the  outer 
row.    The  other  rows  are  blanched  by  their  own  shade. 


Fio.   86. — "New  celery  culture"  celery  ready  to  harvest. 


NEW  CELERY  CULTURE 


141 


harvest,  then  dug  and  stored  in  a  dark  place  where  it  continues 
a  slow  growth  and  becomes  blanched. 

The  "  New  Celery  Culture." — There  is  a  method  of  growing 
celery  in  which  the  plants  are  set  so  close  together  that  the  stalks 
are  blanched  by  the  shade  of  their  own  foliage.    This  method  of 


Fig.  87. — Celeriac  or  turnip-rooted  celery. 

growing  celery  is  sometimes  called  "  the  new  celery  culture."  It 
is  practicable  only  where  the  soil  can  be  made  exceedingly,  rich 
and  a  constant  supply  of  water  is  available;  for  enormous  quantities 
of  both  plant  food  and  moisture  are  needed  to  support  the  great 
numbers  of  plants  that  are  set  on  a  limited  area. 

In  preparing  soil  for  this  method  of  growing  celery  it  is  custom- 


142  CELERY 

ary  to  apply  about  one  ton  of  rotted  manure  to  each  square  rod 
of  ground.  The  plants  are  set  six  inches  apart  in  rows  only  eight 
to  ten  inches  from  one  another.  Usually  the  plants  are  arranged 
in  beds  about  twelve  feet  wide  for  convenience  in  working  among 
them  with  hand  tools.  When  they  have  grown  so  much  that  tillage 
can  no  longer  be  given,  boards  are  placed  edgewise  around  each 
bed  in  order  to  blanch  the  outside  rows  (Fig.  85) .  Under  thorough 
watering,  the  plants  eventually  make  so  dense  a  mass  of  foliage 
that  no  sunlight  is  able  to  penetrate  to  the  stalks  below.  Under 
these  conditions,  the  early  or  self-blanching  varieties  become  as 
fully  blanched  as  if  boards  were  used  for  every  row  (Fig.  86). 

This  method  of  celery  culture  is  especially  adapted  to  furnish- 
ing a  home  supply  if  the  celery  bed  can  be  placed  within  range  of 
a  hose  connected  with  a  water  supply  under  pressure.  It  is  also 
sometimes  employed  by  market  gardeners  in  growing  very  early 
celery  in  cold  frames  for  marketing  in  June  after  the  supply  from 
Florida  is  exhausted  and  before  the  early  outdoor  crop  from 
Michigan  is  available. 


CELERIAC    OR    TURNIP    ROOTED    CELERY 

This  plant  is  also  known  among  gardeners  as  "  root  celery  " 
and  "  German  celery."  It  greatly  resembles  celery  in  general 
appearance,  and  in  their  early  stages  of  development  it  is  difficult 
to  distinguish  between  the  two.  However,  in  celeriac,  it  is  the 
enlarged  root,  rather  than  the  leaf  stalk,  which  constitutes  the 
edible  product  (Fig.  87).  In  a  well-grown  specimen  the  root  is 
three  to  four  inches  in  diameter.  Celeriac  is  used  chiefly  in  flavor- 
ing soups  and  making  salads,  but  may  also  be  creamed  and  served 
as  a  side  dish. 

The  culture  of  celeriac  is  like  that  of  late  celery  except  that 
no  blanching  is  required.  The  seed  is  sown  in  flats  or  carefully 
prepared  seed-beds,  the  plants  shifted  once  before  their  final 
transplanting  to  the  field,  and  the  crop  given  good  tillage  and 
plenty  of  water  during  its  growth.  Celeriac  is  considered  a  less 
exacting  crop  than  celery,  but  does  not  produce  full-sized  roots 
unless  the  weather  is  cool  and  the  soil  rich.  The  crop  is  harvested 
late  in  fall  and  is  sometimes,  though  not  usually,  stored  for 
winter  use. 


QUESTIONS  143 


QUESTIONS 

1.  Compare  the  present  importance  of  celery  with  its  status  thirty  or  forty 

years  ago. 

2.  What  soil  and  climatic  conditions  are  essential  to  successful  commercial 

celery  culture? 

3.  Why  is  not  celery  more  generally  grown  in  home  gardens? 

4.  Compare  the  early  and  the  late  crop  of  celery  as  to  the  time  of  setting 

the  plants  in  the  field,  time  of  harvesting,  and  behavior  in  localities 
where  the  summers  are  warm. 

5.  Describe  the  method  of  growing  celery  plants. 

6.  How  far  apart  should  celery  plants  be  set  in  the  field? 

7.  Discuss  the  relative  merits  of  planting  celery  in  trenches  and  on  the  level. 

8.  In  what  different  ways  may  celery  be  blanched?     What  circumstances 

determine  which  method  to  employ? 

9.  Describe  the  "new  celery  culture."    Under  what  conditions  is  this  method 

practicable? 

10.  What  is  celeriac? 

11.  Describe  the  method  of  growing  celeriac. 

12.  What  are  the  chief  uses  of  celeriac? 


CHAPTER  XVIII 
ROOT  CROPS  THAT  ENDURE  SUMMER  HEAT 

BEETS  AND    CARROTS 

Beets  and  carrots  thrive  under  practically  the  same  conditions 
and  may  therefore  be  treated  together.  They  are  fairly  hardy 
and  can  therefore  be  planted  quite  early  in  the  spring,  though  they 
will  not  stand  such  cold  weather  following  planting  as  will  lettuce, 
spinach  and  turnips.  In  seasons  when  the  opportunity  for  out- 
door gardening  arrives  exceptionally  early,  the  sowing  of  beets 
and  carrots  should  be  deferred  until  the  second,  rather  than  in- 
cluded in  the  first  planting.  The  seeds  are  sown  in  drills  from 
twelve  to  eighteen  inches  apart  if  hand  methods  of  tillage  are  to 
be  employed,  or  two  and  one-half  to  three  feet  if  horse  tools  are 
to  be  used.  In  market  gardens  close  planting  and  hand  tillage 
are  the  rule. 

The  seeds  of  carrots  are  much  smaller  than  those  of  beets  and 
the  seedlings  are  weaker;  hence  the  planting  should  be  shallower, 
and  special  precautions  should  be  taken  to  avoid  letting  a  crust 
form  on  the  soil  before  the  seedlings  appear.  For  this  reason 
sandy  soil  is  preferred  to  clay  for  carrots,  for  there  is  less  danger 
of  crust  formation.  In  both  beets  and  carrots,  the  sowing  of  a 
few  radish  seeds  in  the  same  drill  is  considered  an  advantage, 
for  the  radishes  come  up  quickly  and  mark  the  rows  so  that  tillage 
can  begin  before  the  beets  and  carrots  are  visible.  The  radishes 
are  removed  before  the  other  plants  need  the  room. 

Thorough  tillage  with  hand  or  wheel  hoes  should  be  given  from 
the  very  start.  Some  hand  weeding  and  also  thinning  of  the 
seedlings  will  be  necessary,  and  should  be  attended  to  promptly. 
The  thinnings  of  the  beets  may  be  used  for  greens,  but  thinnings 
of  the  carrots  are  of  no  value  except  that  occasionally  the  foliage 
is  used  for  garnishing.  The  distance  between  the  plants  in  the 
row  will  depend  primarily  upon  the  stage  of  development  at  which 
the  crop  is  to  be  harvested.  If  the  roots  are  to  be  pulled  for  early 
use  when  only  partially  grown  (Fig.  88),  they  will  not  need  so 
much  space  as  if  allowed  to  grow  through  the  season  for  winter 
use.  There  is  also  some  difference  in  the  amount  of  space  required 
144 


BEETS  AND  CARROTS 


145 


by  different  varieties.  In  general,  however,  the  plants  should 
stand  from  two  to  four  inches  apart  in  the  row,  the  latter  distance 
being  preferable  if  the  plants  are  not  intended  primarily  for  early 
use.  Sometimes  even  greater  distances  are  allowed  if  large  speci- 
mens are  desired.  Medium-sized  roots  are  considered  better  for 
table  use  than  those  that  are  overgrown  (Fig.  89),  and  hence 
thinning  to  greater  distances  than  above  specified  is  seldom  neces- 


Young  beets  pulled  for  early  use. 


sary.  In  fact,  the  desire  for  small,  tender  roots  for  late  use  has 
led  some  gardeners  to  adopt  the  practice  of  making  successive 
plantings  of  these  crops.  It  is  difficult,  however,  to  secure  a  stand 
of  beets  or  carrots  in  hot,  dry  weather,  and  unless  artificial  water- 
ing can  be  employed  it  is  safer  to  depend  upon  early  plantings  to 
furnish  the  winter  as  well  as  the  summer  supply  of  these  two  crops. 
Sometimes,  the  long  type  of  beet  is  grown  for  winter  use. 
10 


146 


ROOT  CROPS  THAT  ENDURE  SUMMER  HEAT 


ROOT  CROPS  THAT  WITHSTAND  WINTER  FREEZING  AS  WELL 
AS  SUMMER  HEAT 

Beets  and  carrots  must  be  harvested  before  the  ground  freezes 
in  the  fall.  Parsnips,  salsify  and  horse-radish  constitute  a  group 
of  root  crops  that  are  not  injured  by  freezing  during  the  winter 
following  the  season  in  which  they  have  made  their  growth.  In 
fact,  freezing  is  thought  to  improve  rather  than  to  impair  their 
quality.  At  any  rate  they  are  surer  to  be  crisp  if  freshly  dug  than 
if  stored  under  unfavorable  conditions.    Therefore  it  is  a  common 


Fia.  89. — Carrots  of  three  types.     The  short  type  is  usually  grown  for 
early  use,  and  the  larger  types  for  winter. 


practice  to  allow  them  to  remain  in  the  ground  all  winter  and  dig 
them  very  early  the  following  spring.  However,  part  of  the  crop 
is  often  dug  in  the  fall  to  afford  a  winter's  supply. 

Parsnips. — Parsnip  seed  quickly  loses  its  germinative  power. 
Therefore,  none  but  fresh  seed  should  be  planted.  It  should  be 
sown  in  drills  about  eighteen  inches  apart,  at  the  time  early  beets 
and  carrots  are  sown.    Parsnips  require  the  entire  season  in  which 


PARSNIPS  147 

to  make  their  growth.  They  must  be  planted  early  in  order  to 
enable  them  to  get  a  good  start  during  the  cool,  moist  weather  of 
spring.  They  are  deep-rooted  plants  and  are  able  to  withstand 
long  periods  of  drought  after  once  becoming  well  established.  The 
roots  do  not  increase  much  in  diameter  during  the  hot,  dry  weather 
of  summer,  and  may  seem  disappointingly  small  in  early  Septem- 
ber; but  under  the  influence  of  autumn  rains  and  agreeable  tem- 
perature, they  swell  rapidly  during  that  and  the  following  month, 
and  may  be  full-sized  when  dug  in  November. 

Soil  for  Parsnips. — In  order  that  parsnip  roots  may  be  sym- 
metrical, the  soil  in  which  they  are  produced  should  be  deep  and 
friable.  Shallow  or  dense  clay  soil  is  likely  to  produce  roots  of 
undesirable  shape.  The  long,  smooth  tap-root  devoid  of  side 
branches  does  not  form  so  readily  in  such  a  soil;  and  the  market 
value  of  a  parsnip  is  determined  largely  by  its  shape  (Fig.  90). 


Fig.  90. — Well-grown  specimens  of  parsnip. 

Tillage,  weeding  and  thinning  should  be  given  to  parsnips  the 
same  as  beets  and  carrots.  However,  since  parsnips  are  never 
used  in  the  early  immature  stages,  thinning  to  the  required  dis- 
tance for  full  development  should  be  done  in  all  cases  as  early  as 
the  size  of  the  plants  and  the  condition  of  the  soil  will  permit. 
The  roots  soon  become  so  long  that  the  plants  are  hard  to  pull 
except  when  the  ground  is  soft.  Therefore,  they  should  be  thinned 
at  the  earliest  opportunity  after  they  have  reached  sufficient  size 
to  be  readily  handled. 

The  digging  of  parsnips  demands  special  attention.  If  the  roots 
are  cut  or  broken  their  value  for  market  is  largely  destroyed.  The 
entire  root  to  a  point  one-fourth  inch  in  diameter  should  be 
secured.  Attempts  to  dig  the  roots  out  with  a  spade  or  to  plow 
them  out  are  sure  to  result  disastrously.    A  trench  should  be  dug 


148  ROOT  CROPS  THAT  ENDURE  SUMMER  HEAT 

or  plowed  close  to  each  side  of  the  row,  and  then  the  roots  pulled 
out  by  hand.  This  is  about  the  only  practicable  way  of  securing 
them  without  injury. 

Salsify. — This  plant  is  also  known  as  "  vegetable  oyster  "  and 
"  oyster  plant."  Its  cultural  requirements  are  very  much  the 
same  as  those  of  the  parsnip.  It  requires  the  whole  season  in 
which  to  develop,  and  can  endure  much  dry  weather  after  gaining 
a  foothold.  The  seeds  are  large  and  of  very  awkward  shape  for 
sowing  with  a  seed  drill.  The  plants  are  even  more  difficult  than 
parsnips  to  thin,  on  account  of  the  presence  of  numerous  side 
roots.  Therefore,  since  the  seed  usually  germinates  well,  it  is 
often  advisable  to  sow  it  by  hand,  taking  sufficient  time  and  care 
to  place  the  seeds  individually  where  the  plants  are  wanted,  and 
thus  dispense  with  the  necessity  of  thinning. 

The  care  of  the  growing  crop  is  the  same  as  that  of  any  other 
root  crop  grown  in  drills.  There  are  no  serious  enemies,  and  no 
particular  skill  is  required  in  growing  the  crop.  All  that  is  neces- 
sary is  to  plant  on  deep,  rich  soil  in  early  spring  and  give  good 
tillage  throughout  the  season.  The  crop  is  harvested  the  same  as 
parsnips  (Fig.  91). 

Scolymus  and  Scorzonera,  known  respectively  as  Spanish  salsify 
and  black  salsify,  are  sometimes  grown  as  substitutes  for  common 
salsify.  They  thrive  under  the  same  conditions  and  demand  the 
same  kind  of  culture  as  salsify.  As  yet  they  are  little  known  in 
America.  The  Spanish  salsify  is  less  promising  than  the  black, 
on  account  of  the  thistle-like  character  of  the  foliage  (Fig.  92). 

Horse-radish  is  extensively  used  as  a  condiment  to  serve  with 
cold  meats.  It  is  in  great  demand  at  the  present  time  and  the 
price  is  high.  Comparatively  few  gardeners  seem  inclined  to 
grow  the  crop.  Perhaps  this  is  because  of  the  difficulty  of  eradi- 
cating it  from  a  piece  of  land  on  which  it  has  once  been  grown. 

Although  horse-radish  makes  its  most  rapid  growth  in  the 
cool  weather  of  autumn,  it  is  usually  planted  early  in  the  spring, 
and  is  able  to  withstand  almost  any  extreme  of  heat.  The  roots 
are  uninjured  by  freezing  and  may  be  dug  late  in  the  fall  or  left 
in  the  ground  until  spring. 

Propagation. — Horse-radish  seldom  produces  seed;  hence  root 
cuttings  or  "  sets  "  are  used  for  planting.  These  are  made  from 
the  small  side  roots  removed  from  the  main  roots  in  trimming 
for  market.  As  ordinarily  used  they  are  five  to  six  inches  long 
and  from  one-fourth  to  one-half  inch  in  diameter.     The  top  is 


HORSE-RADISH 


149 


usually  cut  off  square  and  the  lower  end  slanting,  so  that  no  mis- 
take will  be  made  in  planting,  since  a  cutting  planted  wrong  end 
.rtflm<  up  will  produce  a  crooked  or  branching 

•:  root.  If  the  crop  is  trimmed  for  market 
in  the  fall,  the  cuttings  may  be  tied 
into  bunches  and  stored  over  winter 
for  planting  the  following  spring. 


Fig.  91. — Bunch   of  salsify  roots 
ready  for  market. 


-Scolymus  or  Spanish  salsify.     Note 
the  thistle-like  foliage. 


The  soil  on  which  horse-radish  is  grown  should  be  very  deep, 
rich  and  moist,  and  should  contain  a  good  supply  of  humus.  If 
grown  in  such  a  soil  and  given  proper  cultivation  the  roots  will 


150  ROOT  CROPS  THAT  ENDURE  SUMMER  HEAT 

be  large,  shapely  and  of  good  market  quality.  If  the  soil  is  too 
dry  or  too  wet  the  roots  are  likely  to  be  small  and  badly  branched. 
A  shallow  soil  underlaid  by  a  hard  sub-soil  will  likewise  produce 
branching  roots  of  little  commercial  value.  Shallow  plowing  or 
hasty  and  incomplete  preparation  of  a  naturally  good  soil  may 
cause  the  production  of  similar  roots.  The  ground  should  there- 
fore be  deeply  plowed  and  thoroughly  pulverized  by  means  of  a 
disk,  harrow,  and  planker  before  the  sets  are  planted. 

Planting. — Furrows  are  laid  out  three  feet  apart  and  deep 
enough  to  accommodate  the  sets,  which  may  be  planted  either 
vertical  or  slanting  and  with  the  top  either  level  with  the  surface 
of  the  soil  or  three  inches  below  it.  Deep  planting  is  more  often 
practiced  when  the  horse-radish  is  to  be  started  between  the  rows 
of  early  cabbage  or  peas.  In  this  case  the  horse-radish  sets  are 
planted  twelve  to  eighteen  inches  apart  in  rows  midway  between 
the  rows  of  the  early  maturing  crop,  either  at  the  time  that  crop 
is  planted  or  from  two  to  four  weeks  later.  If  planted  after  the 
other  crop  is  already  in  the  ground  it  is  customary  to  place  the 
sets  in  holes  made  with  a  crow-bar  or  dibber  rather  than  to  plow 
out  a  furrow  for  them.  When  grown  in  this  manner  the  horse- 
radish receives  no  attention  until  the  other  crop  is  harvested; 
the  early  crop  is  cultivated  the  same  as  if  the  horse-radish  were 
not  there.  Being  planted  deeply,  the  horse-radish  does  not  start 
into  growth  for  some  time,  and  it  is  not  materially  injured  if 
the  tops  are  cut  off  by  the  cultivator  two  or  three  times  early  in 
the  season.  After  the  early  crop  is  off,  the  horse-radish  is  culti- 
vated repeatedly  until  the  leaves  shade  the  ground. 

When  grown  by  itself,  horse-radish  can  be  cultivated  the  same 
as  any  other  crop  requiring  good  tillage.  It  should  be  cultivated 
at  least  five  or  six  times.  If  the  sets  are  planted  rather  deep,  it 
will  be  a  decided  advantage  to  harrow  the  field  once  or  twice 
before  the  plants  appear,  and  it  may  also  be  found  eco- 
nomical to  use  the  harrow  in  cultivating  the  first  time  after  the 
plants  are  up. 

Harvesting. — Since  horse-radish  makes  its  principal  growth  late 
in  the  season,  it  should  be  left  in  the  ground  as  late  as  possible; 
but  for  the  sake  of  convenience  and  economy  in  harvesting,  the 
crop  should  be  plowed  out  before  the  cold  and  wet  weather  of 
winter  sets  in.  The  roots  should  be  trimmed  before  being  sold 
or  stored,  and  the  side  roots  should  be  saved  for  sets  for  the  next 
season's  planting.    If  desired,  a  part  of  the  crop  may  be  left  in 


QUESTIONS  151 

the  ground  till  spring,  but  it  is  likely  to  be  difficult  to  dig  it  out 
of  the  mud  at  that  season  of  the  year. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  two  root  crops  will  endure  summer  heat  but  not  withstand  the 

freezing  of  winter? 

2.  Should  beets  and  carrots  be  included  in  the  earliest  planting  of  spring? 

3.  What  special  precautions  should  be  taken  in  order  to  insure  a  good  stand 

of  carrots? 

4.  How  far  apart  should  beets  and  carrots  stand  in  the  row  after  thinning? 

5.  What  root  crops  will  endure  both  summer  heat  and  winter  freezing? 

6.  How  long  a  time  is  required  for  parsnips  to  become  fully  grown? 

7.  When  is  parsnip  seed  sown  and  when  is  the  crop  harvested? 

8.  What  kind  of  soil  favors  the  development  of  marketable  parsnips? 

9.  How  early  should  parsnips  be  thinned? 

10.  Describe  the  proper  method  of  digging  parsnips. 

11.  By  what  other  names  is  salsify  known? 

12.  How  may  the  difficult  task  of  thinning  salsify  be  avoided? 

13.  Describe  the  general  care  of  the  salsify  crop. 

14.  What  forms  of  salsify,  besides  the  common  sort,  are  sometimes  grown? 

15.  What  reason  may  be  assigned  for  the  limited  extent  to  which  horse-radish 

is  grown  at  the  present  time? 

16.  How  is  horse-radish  propagated? 

17.  What  kind  of  soil  is  best  adapted  to  the  growing  of  horse-radish,  and  why? 

18.  Describe  the  planting  of  horse-radish. 

19.  How  much  tillage  does  horse-radish  need? 

20.  How  and  when  is  horse-radish  harvested? 

21.  What  root  crops  mentioned  in  this  chapter  are  grown  commercially  in 

your  vicinity? 


CHAPTER  XIX 
GREENS  AND  SALAD  PLANTS  THAT  ENDURE  HEAT 

GREENS  THAT  ENDURE  HEAT 

Although  greens  are  in  greatest  demand  in  the  spring,  so 
that  the  necessity  of  heat-enduring  sorts  is  not  as  imperative  as 
might  otherwise  be  the  case,  nevertheless  it  is  fortunate  for  those 
who  desire  greens  during  the  summer  that  there  are  certain  sorts 
which  withstand  the  heat  in  central  and  even  southern  regions, 
and  are  available  for  use  at  any  time  from  early  summer  till  late 
autumn,  since  they  continue  to  produce  new  and  tender  foliage 
through  the  entire  season.  Chard,  kale,  collards  and  New  Zealand 
spinach  are  the  principal  crops  that  furnish  summer  greens. 

Chard  or  Swiss  Chard. — This  is  a  form  of  beet  in  which  the 
foliage  develops  much  more  prominently  than  the  root  (Fig.  93). 
The  leaves  are  large,  light  green  in  color,  and  considerably  wrinkled. 
The  midribs  and  leaf  stalks  are  exceedingly  broad  and  nearly 
white.  Chard  is  also  known  as  "  silver  beet,"  from  the  color  of 
the  leaf  stalk,  and  "  spinach  beet  "  from  the  fact  that  it  is  used 
as  greens  in  place  of  spinach.  The  root  is  white  in  color,  and  much 
branched  and  is  not  used  as  food.  While  the  leaves  of  chard  are 
used  chiefly  as  greens,  the  leaf  stalks  also  may  be  creamed  and 
served  like  asparagus. 

The  seed  of  chaj-d  is  usually  sown  in  early  spring  at  about  the 
time  for  planting  other  beets.  On  account  of  the  large  tops  which 
the  plants  form,  the  rows  should  be  at  least  eighteen  inches  apart. 
The  seedlings  are  thinned  to  six  or  eight  inches  apart,  as  soon  as 
large  enough  for  greens.  The  greens  secured  by  this  means  are 
purely  an  incidental  crop ;  the  main  crop  is  produced  by  the  plants 
that  remain.  As  soon  as  the  oldest  leaves  have  attained  full  size 
they  are  pulled  off  and  used  as  greens,  or  the  entire  top  may  be 
cut  off.  In  either  case,  care  must  be  taken  not  to  injure  the  crown. 
The  plants  continue  to  produce  new  foliage,  so  that  material  for 
greens  may  be  gathered  repeatedly.  A  good  plan  is  to  have  a 
sufficient  number  of  plants  so  that  leaves  are  harvested  from  only 
a  small  part  of  them  at  a  time,  and  a  continuous  supply  thus 
maintained. 
152 


KALE  OR  BORECOLE 


153 


If  an  extra  early  crop  of  chard  is  desired,  the  plants  may  be 
started  under  glass  and  transplanted  the  same  as  is  sometimes 
done  with  ordinary  beets. 

Swiss  chard  is  seldom  seen  on  the  market,  but  is  very  popular 
with  home  gardeners  who  have  given  it  a  fair  trial.  It  is  worthy 
of  much  more  extensive  culture,  for  it  is  a  sure  crop  producer 
even  under  unfavorable  weather  conditions,  and  remains  edible 
through  an  indefinite  period.  This  makes  it  an  exceedingly  handy 
crop  to  have  in  any  garden. 


Fig.  93. — Swiss  chard. 


Kale  or  Borecole.— Kale  belongs  to  the  cabbage  group,  but 
produces  no  head.  The  leaves  are  from  one  to  two  feet  long  and 
rather  narrow  in  proportion  to  their  length.  They  are  kinked 
and  curled  somewhat  like  savoy  cabbage,  and  considerably  frilled 
at  the  edges  (Fig.  94).  The  plant  will  stand  extreme  heat  and 
drought  and  may  be  grown  from  seed  sown  almost  any  time  from 
early  spring  till  late  summer  or  early  autumn.  It  continues  growth 
late  in  fall  and  is  killed  only  by  severe  and  repeated  freezing.  In 
fact,  it  survives  mild  winters  even  in  central  localities,  and  is 
regularly  grown  as  a  fall-sown  crop  for  early  spring  market  in  the 


154       GREENS  AND  SALAD  PLANTS  THAT  ENDURE  HEAT 

latitude  of  Norfolk,  Virginia.  Sometimes  the  hardiest  sorts  are 
used  for  greens  in  midwinter.  Thus  it  is  a  plant  that  can  be  made 
to  furnish  greens  through  a  large  part  of  the  year.  If  only  a  few 
leaves  are  picked  at  a  time,  the  same  plant  continues  to  produce 
new  foliage  indefinitely.  The  leaves  are  more  tender  if  picked 
before  they  have  attained  full  size,  since  the  midribs  of  the  mature 
leaves  are  likely  to  be  stringy.  In  the  fall-sown  crop  grown  for 
early  spring  market,  the  entire  plant  is  usually  taken  at  one 


sSs 


Fig.  94. — Kale. 

picking.  The  quality  is  thought  by  some  to  be  improved  by  freez- 
ing; therefore  kale  is  more  popular  in  late  fall  and  early  spring 
than  in  summer,  but  if  the  more  tender  leaves  are  selected,  it  is 
an  excellent  vegetable  at  that  season  also.  Its  great  merit  is  its 
ability  to  produce  a  crop  regardless  of  unfavorable  weather  con- 
ditions. 

The  seeds  should  be  sown  in  rows  from  two  to  three  feet  apart 
where  the  plants  are  to  remain.  After  thinning,  the  plants  should 
stand  a  foot  apart  in  the  row.    Ordinary  care  in  the  way  of  tillage 


NEW  ZEALAND  SPINACH 


155 


is  all  that  is  required.  The  plant  does  not  seem  to  be  subject  to 
attacks  from  cabbage  worms. 

Collards. — Young  collards  look  so  much  like  cabbage  plants 
that  the  two  cannot  be  readily  distinguished.  However,  collards 
continue  to  grow  all  summer  without  producing  heads.  The  stem 
elongates  so  that  the  plants  may  become  three  feet  in  height 
before  the  season  is  over.  New  leaves  are  continually  formed. 
Collards  are  not  sensitive  to  the  heat  of  summer,  and  are  often 
grown  in  the  South  to  be  used 
as  a  substitute  for  cabbage 
where  the  weather  is  too  hot 
for  the  latter.  They  are  little 
grown  at  the  North.  The 
young  leaves  from  near  the 
top  of  the  plant  form  the  edible 
part,  or  early  in  the  season 
the  entire  plant  may  be  used 
(Fig.  95). 

The  seeds  may  be  sown  in 
early  spring  where  the  plants 
are  to  stand  and  the  seedlings 
thinned  to  about  a  foot  apart 
in  the  row'.  Tillage  should  be 
given  as  required. 

New  Zealand  Spinach. — 
This  plant  is  entirely  distinct 
from  ordinary  spinach.  In- 
stead of  producing  a  dense 
rosette  of  leaves  early  in  the 
season,  and  quickly  running 
to  seed  and  passing  out  of  the 
edible  stage,  as  is  the  case 
with  common  spinach,  the  New 

Zealand  spinach  forms  a  large  branching  plant  that  continues 
growing  through  the  summer  and  may  eventually  attain  a  spread 
of  four  to  six  feet.  The  main  branches  spread  over  the  ground, 
but  short  upright  and  oblique  laterals  arise  in  large  numbers  from 
these,  and  new  growths  are  continually  being  formed.  The  tender 
tips  of  the  growing  laterals,  covered  with  succulent  leaves,  con- 
stitute the  edible  portions,  and  make  an  excellent  substitute  for 
spinach  in  hot  weather  (Fig.  96). 


Fig.  95. — Collard  plant  at  stage  of  devel- 
opment when  the  entire  plant  (except  the  root) 
might  be  used. 


156       GREENS  AND  SALAD  PLANTS  THAT  ENDURE  HEAT 

New  Zealand  spinach  may  be  planted  at  almost  any  time  in 
early  spring,  and  will  continue  growth  until  the  severe  frosts  of 
autumn.  It  will  endure  a  large  amount  of  summer  heat.  The 
seed  should  be  sown  in  rows  three  to  four  feet  apart,  and  the 
plants  thinned  to  a  foot  apart  in  the  row.  No  special  care,  other 
than  good  tillage,  is  required.  Gathering  of  the  crop  should  not 
begin  until  the  plants  have  attained  considerable  size,  but,  from 
early  summer  until  late  fall,  repeated  pickings  can  be  made  from 
the  same  plants. 


^J0£dH-      Jfc.    '  \r     , 


Fig.  96. — The  edible  tips  of  New  Zealand  spinach. 

Dandelion. — Dandelions  growing  wild  are  often  dug  for  greens 
in  early  spring.  These  wild  plants  are  usually  small  and  with 
but  few  leaves,  and  the  time  required  to  prepare  them  for  cooking 
is  enormous.  If  given  room  in  which  to  grow  on  rich  soil,  and 
cultivated  like  other  crops,  the  dandelion  develops  an  immense 
mass  of  large,  succulent  leaves,  and  a  much  smaller  number  of 
plants  is  required  to  make  a  "  mess  of  greens."    Dandelions  are 


SALAD  PLANTS  THAT  ENDURE  HEAT  157 

cultivated  in  some  private  gardens  and  by  some  commercial 
growers,  particularly  in  the  East.  The  seed  is  sown  in  early 
spring  in  rows  one  to  two  feet  apart,  and  the  plants  are  thinned 
to  six  inches  to  a  foot  apart  in  the  row.  Sometimes  the  tops  are 
mowed  off  with  a  scythe  in  June  and  sent  to  market  if  other  greem 
are  scarce.  This  is  thought  to  improve  rather  than  to  injure  the 
plants,  as  well  as  increasing  the  cash  receipts.  The  dandelions 
are  then  usually  allowed  to  grow  all  summer  without  any  further 
harvesting  of  the  crop  that  season.  They  will  endure  a  large 
amount  of  heat  and  drought,  and  develop  large  roots  with  strong 
crowns  before  winter  sets  in.  Sometimes  a  crop  of  greens  is  cut 
late  in  the  fall,  but  this  is  rather  unusual.  The  ordinary  method 
is  to  allow  the  plants  to  remain  in  the  ground  over  winter.    Very 


Fig.   'J7. — Parsley  plants  iu   six-inch   pots:      One   method   of  producing 
the  home  supply  for  winter  use. 

early  in  the  spring  the  strong  roots,  with  their  abundant  store  of 
food  material  secured  the  season  before,  send  up  a  great  mass  of  foli- 
age which  is  available  for  greens  long  before  any  spring-planted 
garden  crop  is  large  enough  for  use.  The  extreme  hardiness  of  the 
dandelion,  enabling  the  roots  to  pass  severe  winters  without  injury, 
makes  it  a  desirable  plant  for  early  spring  greens  in  northern 
localities,  where  fall-planted  spinach  and  kale  will  not  survive. 
As  soon  as  the  crop  is  harvested,  the  land  should  be  plowed  to  kill 
out  the  roots  and  prevent  any  stray  plants  from  going  to  seed. 

SALAD  PLANTS  THAT  ENDURE  HEAT 

Parsley  is  used  primarily  for  garnishing,  and  surpasses  all 
other  plants  for  that  purpose.  It  is  also  used  for  flavoring  salads 
and  sometimes  for  flavoring  soups.     It  will  endure  extreme  heat 


158       GREENS  AND  SALAD  PLANTS  THAT  ENDURE  HEAT 

and  drought  in  summer,  and  continues  growing  in  the  fall  until 
the  ground  freezes.  The  same  plants  that  have  been  furnishing 
foliage  all  summer  may  be  dug  up  late  in  the  fall  and  placed  in 
coldframes  or  in  boxes  or  pots  of  earth  in  the  kitchen  or  cellar 
window  and  will  continue  to  supply  garnishing  material  all  winter 
(Fig.  97). 

The  seed  is  small  and  germinates  slowly.  Hence  the  seed- 
bed must  be  thoroughly  prepared  and  contain  plenty  of  moisture. 
Sometimes  to  insure  a  stand  the  plants  are  started  under  glass 
where  the  seeds  can  be  sown  very  shallow  and  water  applied 


Fig.  98. — Well-grown  parsley  under  field  conditions. 

whenever  necessary.  If  the  seed  is  sown  in  the  open,  radishes 
should  be  sown  to  mark  the  rows.  Since  the  plants  are  hardy, 
outdoor  sowing  may  take  place  at  the  time  of  the  earliest  garden 
planting  in  the  spring.  If  the  plants  are  started  under  glass  they 
should  be  ready  for  transplanting  at  the  same  time  as  early  cab- 
bage. The  rows  should  be  twelve  to  eighteen  inches  apart  and 
the  plants,  after  thinning  or  transplanting,  should  stand  from  four 
to  eight  inches  apart  in  the  row  (Fig.  98).  Tillage  and  weeding 
should  be  given  as  necessary. 

Under  favorable  conditions  parsley  will  produce  foliage  sufnci- 


ENDIVE  159 

ently  large  for  use  about  three  months  after  planting.  Only  a 
few  leaves  are  picked  from  each  plant  at  a  time,  and  the  same  plants 
furnish  a  continuous  supply  of  foliage  throughout  the  season. 

Upland  cress  somewhat  resembles  water  cress  in  both  appear- 
ance and  flavor,  and  may  be  used  on  the  home  table  as  a  substitute 
for  the  latter.  It  is  seldom  grown  commercially.  If  planted 
early  in  spring  it  continues  to  thrive  through  the  hot  weather  of 
summer  and  is  uninjured  by  the  frosts  of  autumn.  It  does  not 
run  to  seed  the  first  year,  and,  in  central  and  northern  localities 
at  least,  kills  out  during  the  winter.  The  plant  forms  a  dense 
tuft  of  leaves  five  or  six  inches  high  and  ten  to  twelve  inches  across. 


m 


Fig.  99. — Endive  ready  for  market.     After  blanching  is  completed,  in  preparing 
endive  for  market,  each  plant  is  opened  up  to  show  the  white  interior. 

The  crop  is  ready  for  use  in  eight  to  ten  weeks  after  the  sowing 
of  the  seed;  and  if  care  is  taken  in  gathering  the  leaves,  the  same 
plants  will  continue  producing  new  foliage  until  the  end  of  the 
season,  so  that  a  constant  supply  will  be  available. 

The  seed  should  be  sown  in  drills  twelve  to  eighteen  inches 
apart  early  in  the  spring  if  the  crop  is  desired  for  summer 
use.  Sometimes  later  sowings  are  made  for  a  fall  crop  and 
occasionally  in  mild  climates  a  fall-sown  crop  is  grown  for  early 
spring  use. 

Endive  is  grown  principally  for  use  as  a  salad  in  the  fall.  The 
plant  makes  its  most  rapid  growth  and  develops  its  best  quality 


160      GREENS  AND  SALAD  PLANTS  THAT  ENDURE  HEAT 

in  cool  weather;  but  in  order  that  it  may  have  time  to  complete 
its  growth  before  winter  sets  in,  it  must  be  started  in  early  or 
midsummer.  Fortunately  it  is  able  to  endure  the  heat  of  that 
season.  The  seed  may  be  sown  in  June  or  July  where  the  plants 
are  to  stand,  or  may  be  sown  in  a  seed-bed  and  the  plants  later 
transplanted.  In  either  case  the  plants  should  eventually  stand 
a  foot  apart  in  rows  twelve  to  eighteen  inches  apart.  Good  tillage 
should  be  given  and  water  supplied  if  the  weather  is  dry,  especially 
following  transplanting. 

Endive  makes  a  dense,  wide-spreading  mass  of  cut  and  curled 
leaves  (Fig.  99),  the  flavor  of  which  is  likely  to  be  bitter  and  the 
texture  tough  unless  they  are  blanched.  Blanching  is  accomplished 
by  drawing  the  leaves  of  a  plant  together  and  tying  them  at  the 
top  with  raffia  or  soft  twine.  From  two  to  three  weeks  are  re- 
quired for  the  blanching,  and  the  plants  should  be  used  as  soon 
as  the  blanching  is  completed,  for  the  inner  leaves  soon  begin  to 
rot.  For  this  reason,  only  a  few  plants  should  be  tied  up  at  a  time; 
otherwise,  the  crop  would  be  of  short  duration.  Care  should  be 
taken  to  be  sure  that  the  plants  are  dry  at  the  time  they  are  tied, 
or  they  may  rot  before  blanching  is  completed. 

The  Batavian  or  broad-leaved  endive,  also  known  as  "escarole," 
is  less  bitter  and  more  succulent  and  tender  than  the  common  or 
curled  endive.  It  is  grown  and  blanched  the  same  way  as  the  other 
type  when  to  be  used  as  a  salad.  Sometimes  it  is  allowed  to  re- 
main unblanched,  and  is  used  for  "greens. " 

QUESTIONS 

1.  At  what  season  of  the  year  is  there  the  greatest  demand  for  greens? 

2.  What  plants  grown  for  greens  will  stand  the  heat  of  summer? 

3.  By  what  other  names  is  chard  sometimes  known? 

4.  Describe  the  culture  and  harvesting  of  chard. 

5.  Through  how  long  a  season  will  chard  continue  to  produce,  if  properly 

handled  ? 

6.  How  may  an  extra  early  crop  of  chard  be  secured? 

7.  What  is  the  present  status  of  chard  from  a  market  standpoint? 

8.  Describe  the  kale  plant. 

9.  Discuss  the  ability  of  kale  to  withstand  extremes  of  temperature. 

10.  Describe  the  collard  plant. 

11.  In  what  part  of  the  country  are  collards  most  popular?    Why  are  they 

grown  in  that  region? 

12.  At  what  stages  of  development  may  collards  be  used? 

13.  Describe  the  character  of  growth  of  New  Zealand  spinach  as  compared 

with  ordinary  spinach. 


QUESTIONS  161 

14.  What  are  the  edible  parts  of  New  Zealand  spinach? 

15.  Through  how  long  a  season  will  New  Zealand  spinach  continue  to  furnish 

an  edible  product. 

16.  How  does  a  cultivated  dandelion  plant  compare  with  one  growing  wild? 

17.  Describe  the  culture  of  dandelions. 

18.  How  long  after  planting  is  the  crop  of  dandelions  usually  harvested? 

19.  What  particular  advantage  has  the  dandelion  over  other  greens? 

20.  What  is  the  best  plant  for  garnishing  purposes? 

21.  How  long  may  the  same  parsley  plant  be  made  to  furnish  foliage  for 

garnishing? 

22.  Describe  the  culture  of  parsley. 

23.  What  well-known  market  form  of  cress  does  upland  cress  resemble? 

24.  What  advantage  has  upland  cress  over  both  water  and  common  garden 

cress? 

25.  Describe  the  culture  of  upland  cress. 

26.  Describe  the  culture  of  endive. 

27.  How  is  endive  blanched? 

28.  What  greens  and  salad  plants  are  grown  in  your  neighborhood? 

29.  Give  some  idea  of  the  extent  to  which  each  is  grown. 


CHAPTER  XX 
THE  ONION  GROUP 

ONIONS  * 

The  onion  is  one  of  the  most  important  vegetable  crops  grown 
in  the  United  States.  It  is  used  in  both  the  immature  and  mature 
stages,  and  can  be  found  in  all  large  markets  in  one  or  both  forms 
throughout  the  entire  year.  Its  adaptability  to  storage  in  the 
mature  state  enhances  its  value  as  a  staple  product.  Its  relatively 
imperishable  nature  also  adapts  it  to  long  distance  shipment, 
rough  handling,  and  keeping  for  a  considerable  time  even  under 
unfavorable  conditions  (Fig.  100).  It  is  thus  an  important  article 
of  food  in  mining,  construction  and  lumber  camps,  and  other  places 
remote  from  sources  of  food  supply.  It  is  also  used  extensively 
on  the  tables  of  all  classes  of  people,  and  its  use  is  rapidly  increas- 
ing. The  former  aversion  to  onions  on  account  of  their  offensive 
odor  is  being  overcome  as  the  knowledge  of  their  healthfulness 
and  palatability  increases.  Whether  raw  or  cooked,  alone  or  in 
combination,  onions  are  appetizing  and  healthful.  They  form 
the  basis  of  many  important  dishes,  and  give  flavor  and  character 
to  a  number  of  others  into  which  they  enter  only  in  small  quantities. 

Temperature  and  Moisture  Requirements. — Onions  grow  best 
in  relatively  cool  weather  and  require  an  abundance  of  moisture 
during  their  early  stages  of  growth.  After  they  have  made  a  good 
start,  they  will  stand  considerable  heat  and  ripen  better  if  the 
weather  is  relatively  dry  at  the  time  they  mature.  This  makes 
them  an  important  crop  in  central  and  northern  latitudes,  where 
the  weather  of  spring  is  cool  and  moist,  and  a  dry  period  normally 
occurs  in  August  or  early  September.  However,  the  season  must 
be  sufficiently  long  for  the  onions  to  mature  before  the  autumn 
rains  set  in,  or  they  are  likely  never  to  ripen  properly.  Unless 
properly  ripened,  onions  will  not  keep.  For  northern  localities  it 
is  sometimes  necessary  to  use  only  the  earlier  maturing  varieties. 

The  above  statements  refer  to  the  growing  of  ripe  onions. 
Green  onions  reach  edible  size  in  a  comparatively  short  time  and 
can  be  grown  during  the  normally  cool  and  moist  weather  of  early 

*  See  also  Circular  173  of  the  Illinois  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 
162 


GROWING  RIPE  ONIONS  FROM  SEED 


163 


spring  in  central  and  northern  latitudes,  or  of  fall  and  winter  in 
southern  localities.  As  a  commercial  crop  they  are  of  minor 
importance  as  compared  with  ripe  onions. 

Ripe  onions  may  be  produced  in  three  different  ways:  (1) 
by  sowing  the  seed  in  the  open  field  where  the  crop  is  to  mature; 
(2)  by  transplanting  seedlings  that  have  been  started  under  glass 
or  in  a  seed-bed,  and  (3)  by  planting  sets.  The  bulk  of  the 
onion  crop  of  the  United  States  is  produced  from  seed  sown  directly 
in  the  field. 


Fig.   100. — A  well-cured  sample  nf  dry  or  ripe  onions.     The  picture  was  taken  in  the  spring 
after  the  onions  had  been  kept  all  winter. 


GROWING   RIPE    ONIONS   FROM    SEED 

Land  for  the  production  of'  ripe  onions  should  be  exceedingly 
rich.  It  is  preferable  to  use  land  that  has  been  heavily  manured 
for  other  crops  two  or  three  years  preceding  its  use  for  onions, 
rather  than  to  start  with  a  piece  of  ordinary  land  and  attempt  to 
make  it  rich  enough  for  onions  in  one  season.  Ordinary  land  is 
also  likely  to  contain  too  many  weed  seeds  to  make  onion  growing 
profitable  until  after  two  or  three  years  of  preparatory  cropping 


164 


THE  ONION  GROUP 


with  other  plants  demanding  very  thorough  tillage.  During  the 
preparatory  cropping  very  heavy  applications  of  manure  should 
be  made  every  year,  and  the  land  kept  free  from  weeds.  In  the 
fall  preceding  the  spring  in  which  the  onions  are  to  be  planted, 
from  forty  to  sixty  tons  of  manure  should  be  applied  to  each  acre 
of  ground,  and  the  land  deeply  plowed.  If  onions  are  grown  on 
the  same  land  in  succeeding  years,  as  is  often  the  case,  similar 
quantities  of  manure  should  be  applied  for  each  onion  crop.  The 
land  will  thus  be  continually  getting  in  better  condition  for  the 
production  of  onions  with  each  succeeding  crop,  unless  it  becomes 
infested  with  insects  or  infected  by  diseases.  Onions  are  one  of 
the  few  crops  that  give  better  results  if  grown  successively  upon 
the  same  land  than  if  new  ground  is  used  each  year.  This  is  because 
it  takes  a  few  years  to  get  a  piece  of  land  in  ideal  condition  for 
the  production  of  onions,  and  land  once  in  that  condition  can  be 


ggwsi  i;ff|*?>  $g&s& 


Fig.   101. — Meeker  harrow. 

kept  so,  much  more  readily  than  a  new  piece  of  land  can  be  brought 
up  to  the  same  condition.  The  "  condition  "  referred  to  in  this 
connection  involves  three  things:  (1)  Richness  in  available  plant 
food,  (2)  friability  due  to  the  presence  of  large  quantities  of  humus 
and  extremely  thorough  tillage,  and  (3)  relative  freedom  from 
weed  seeds.  These  three  factors  of  soil  condition  are  essential  to 
profitable  onion  culture. 

Sowing  the  Seed. — In  order  that  onions  may  get  a  good  start 
before  hot  weather,  it  is  essential  that  the  seed  be  planted  early. 
This  is  one  reason  that  the  land  should  be  plowed  in  the  fall.  At 
the  very  earliest  date  that  the  fall-plowed  land  can  be  worked  in 
the  spring,  preparations  for  planting  the  onions  should  begin. 
Soil  that  is  sufficiently  friable  for  the  production  of  onions  usually 
will  not  need  replowing  in  the  spring,  so  that  the  first  operation 
in  the  spring  preparatory  to  planting  will  be  a  thorough  disking. 


TILLAGE 


165 


The  disk  should  be  followed  by  a  spike-tooth  harrow.  Many- 
successful  onion  growers  complete  the  preparation  of  the  seed- 
bed by  the  use  of  a  Meeker  harrow  (Fig.  101),  while  others  use  a 
planker  (Fig.  41).  These  various  tools  should  be  used  repeatedly, 
if  necessary,  so  that  an  exceedingly  fine  seed-bed  may  be  prepared. 
Land  for  only  one  day's  planting  should  be  prepared  at  a  time, 
and  the  seed  drill  should  follow  immediately  after  the  last  prepara- 
tion tool.  This  prevents  the  top  soil  from  drying  out  before  the 
seed  is  planted,  and  insures  the  presence  of  moist  soil  in  direct 
contact  with  the  seeds. 


ill  at  righ 
chments. 


Seed  is  usually  sown  by  means  of  a  garden  seed  drill  (Fig.  102) 
in  rows  twelve  inches  apart,  and  this  is  the  standard  distance 
whether  a  few  rows  or  several  acres  are  grown.  If  the  plants  are 
to  be  thinned,  from  four  to  five  pounds  of  seed  are  sown  to  the 
acre.  If  thinning  is  not  to  be  practiced,  a  smaller  quantity  of 
carefully  tested  seed  is  preferable.  Some  of  the  most  successful 
growers  sow  from  three  and  one-eighth  to  three  and  one-fourth 
pounds  per  acre,  and  do  not  thin.  This  method  results  in  smaller 
and  less  uniform  bulbs,  but  is  a  great  saving  in  labor. 

Tillage. — As  soon  as  the  plants  are  up,  tillage  with  wheel  hoes 
(Fig.  102)  should  begin,  and  should  be  repeated  at  frequent  inter- 
vals until  the  plants  are  so  large  that  it  can  no  longer  be  done. 
Care  should  be  taken  to  cultivate  the  onions  as  soon  as  the  ground 


166  THE  ONION  GROUP 

is  sufficiently  dry  after  each  rain  and  at  other  times  if  necessary. 
On  the  average  they  should  be  cultivated  at  least  once  in  ten 
days  for  a  period  of  about  three  months.  Early  in  the  season  the 
double-wheel  hoe  is  usually  employed.  This  cultivates  both  sides 
of  one  row  at  a  time.  The  blades  should  be  set  to  cut  as  close  as 
possible  to  the  row,  and  thus  kill  all  incipient  weeds  except  those 
directly  between  the  plants  in  the  row.  Later,  a  single-wheel  hoe, 
that  goes  between  the  rows,  may  be  more  advantageously  em- 
ployed. One  with  a  large  wheel  (Fig.  103)  is  preferable  to  the  small- 
wheeled  type  for  late  tillage,  since  there  is  less  danger  of  injuring 
the  plants  with  the  axle  and  framework.    Under  average  conditions 

a  man  should  be  able  to  culti- 
vate an  acre  of  onions  a  day. 
Weeding. — Although  every 
precaution  may  have  been 
taken  to  keep  weed  seeds  out 
of  the  onion  land,  and  to  kill 
young  weeds  by  tillage  before 
they  are  fairly  started,  some 
hand  weeding  will  be  necessary 
to  eliminate  the  weeds  that  are 
directly  in  the  rows.  These 
should  be  pulled  before  they 
become  large,  so  that  they 
will  not  rob  the  onions  of 
moisture,  plant  food  and  sun- 
light. Also,  if  the  weeds  are 
numerous  and  are  allowed  to 
become  large,  their  ultimate  removal  is  likely  to  seriously  disturb 
the  roots  of  the  onions,  and  cause  them  to  ripen  prematurely  with- 
out developing  to  normal  size.  On  the  whole,  the  weeding  of 
onions  is  exceedingly  important  and  must  be  attended  to  promptly, 
or  disastrous  results  are  likely  to  follow.  Usually  the  onions  will 
need  weeding  about  three  times,  but  if  more  frequent  weeding  is 
needed  to  keep  the  plantation  clean,  it  should  by  all  means  be  given. 
Thinning. — If  the  onions  are  to  be  thinned,  this  may  be  done 
at  the  time  of  the  first  or  second  weeding.  It  should  preferably 
be  done  before  the  onions  are  as  large  as  lead  pencils;  for  if  the 
plants  are  very  thick,  they  soon  begin  to  interfere  with  one  another, 
and  the  surplus  plants  have  the  same  effect  as  weeds  upon  those 
that  are  to  remain.     The  thinning  should  be  done  when  the  soil 


Fig.  103.— Single-wheel  hoe,  with  twent 
inch  wheel,  lor  late  tillage  between  the 


THINNING 


167 


Fig.  104. — Results  of  thinning  onions.  The  onions  in  the  box  at  the  left  were  thinned 
30  that  the  plants  stood  three  inches  apart  in  the  row;  those  in  the  box  at  the  right  were 
not  thinned. 


Fig.  105. — Good  and  poor  onions  shortly  before  the  harvest.  The  tops  of  the  good 
onions  have  fallen  over  due  to  the  shriveling  of  the  necks;  the  poor  onions,  with  thick  necks, 
still  stand  erect. 


168 


THE  ONION  GROUP 


/ 


./ 


is  moist,  and  care  taken  to  disturb  as  little  as  possible  the  rootg' 
of  the  plants  that  are  to  make  the  crop.  Care  should  be  taken  to 
leave  the  most  vigorous  plants.  If  large,  uniform  bulbs  are  wanted, 
the  plants  should  stand  at  least  three  inches  apart  in  the  row  after 
thinning  (Fig.  104). 


Fig.  106. — Properly  and  improperly  ripened  onions.  The  onion  at 
the  left  has  ripened  from  the  top  downward,  and  is  unsuitable  for 
storage;  the  bulb  at  the  right  has  ripened  properly. 


Harvesting. — When  onions  ripen  properly,  the  necks  shrivel 
first  and  the  tops  fall  over  while  they  are  yet  green  (Fig.  105). 
Gradual  drying  of  the  leaves  from  the  tips  downward,  while  the 
necks  remain  rigid  and  erect,  indicates  abnormal  ripening  and 
usually  poor  keeping  quality.  Therefore  such  onions  should  be 
used  soon  after  the  harvest  and  no  attempt  made  to  store  them 


TOPPING  169 

for  winter  (Fig.  106).  Following  the  shriveling  of  the  necks  in 
normal  ripening,  the  leaves  gradually  turn  yellow,  and  finally  the 
tops  become  dry  and  brown  if  the  onions  are  not  pulled  before 
they  reach  that  stage.  However,  it  is  usually  best  to  begin  the 
harvest  as  soon  as  the  tops  have  fallen  over  and  begun  to  turn 
yellow.  This  insures  getting  the  onions  harvested  while  they  are 
in  good  condition,  and  avoids  the  risk  of  their  starting  a  second 
growth  in  case  of  heavy  rains  following  their  ripening.  If  onions 
start  into  a  second  growth  after  once  ripening,  their  keeping  quality 
is  forever  ruined,  and  they  are  fit  only  for  immediate  use. 

If  the  soil  is  dry  and  hard  when  the  onions  are  harvested,  it 
is  sometimes  an  advantage  to  loosen  the  bulbs  by  running  along 
the  row  with  an  "  onion  harvester  "  attachment  on  a  wheel  hoe 
(Fig.  107).  This  is  a  U-shaped  piece  of  steel  that  passes  under  the 
bulbs  and  loosens  the  soil  about  them  so  that  they  can  be  much 
more  easily  pulled.  If  the  soil  is  loose  at  harvest  time,  the  use 
of  this  machine  is  unnecessary.  The  bulbs  are 
simply  grasped  by  the  tops  and  pulled  out,  or  any 
deep-seated  or  tenacious  specimens  may  be 
caught  by  the  edge  of  the  bulb  itself  and 
pulled  sideways. 

Curing. — The  old  method  of  handling  the 
onions  at  harvest    time  was   to  place  them  in 
windrows  in  the  field  as  they  were  pulled  (four        FiG  ]07_0nion 
rows  of  onions  usually  making  one  windrow)  and  harvesting  attachment 

.         .,         °  .  for  wheel  hoe. 

allow  them  to  cure  in  the  sun  for  one  or  two 
weeks.  In  case  of  rain  while  curing,  the  onions  were  occasionally 
turned  with  a  wooden  rake  to  insure  their  drying  out  on  all  sides 
and  to  prevent  their  taking  root  in  the  moist  soil.  This  method  of 
handling  results  in  more  or  less  discoloration  of  the  bulbs  in  case 
of  rain,  and  even  considerable  loss  due  to  rotting  and  sprouting  if 
the  rains  are  abundant  (Fig.  108).  In  the  absence  of  rain,  there 
is  sometimes  serious  loss  due  to  sun-scald  of  the  curing  bulbs 
in  excessively  hot  weather.  White  onions  are  especially  difficult 
to  cure  in  the  field,  and  for  this  reason  their  curing  under  cover 
has  been  often  advocated  and  sometimes  employed,  even  when 
other  sorts  were  cured  in  the  field. 

Topping. — In  the  old  method  topping  was  usually  deferred 
until  after  the  curing  was  completed.  When  onions  were  taken 
up  from  the  windrows,  or  sometimes  later,  the  tops  were  pulled 
off  by  hand  or  cut  off  with  shears  or  a  knife.    The  top  was  sup- 


170 


THE  ONION  GROUP 


posed  to  be  severed  at  a  point  about  three-fourths  of  an  inch  from 
the  bulb  to  avoid  injury  to  the  latter.  Machines  have  also  been 
invented  for  removing  the  tops. 

The  modern  method  of  harvesting  onions  now  employed  by 
practically  all  commercial  growers  in  the  vicinity  of  Chicago, 
where  onion  growing  is  an  important  industry,  dispenses  with 
field  curing  for  all  varieties,  and  completes  the  pulling  and  top- 
ping at  one  operation.  The  onions  remain  bright  in  color,  there 
is  no  loss  due  to  injury  by  excessive  heat  or  moisture,  and  no  ex- 


Fio.   108. — Onion   starting   into   growth   soon   after   the   harvest,   because 
of   unfavorable  miring  conditions  in  the  field. 

pense  for  repeated  handling.  The  onions  are  pulled  at  the  stage 
already  indicated — before  the  tops  are  dry.  When  a  handful  of 
onions  is  pulled,  the  tops  are  grasped  in  the  other  hand  and  twisted 
off.  The  onions  are  dropped  into  a  crate  or  into  a  basket  to  be 
emptied  into  a  crate.  The  crates  in  common  use  about  Chicago 
are  really  trays.  They  are  four  feet  long,  three  feet  wide  and  four 
inches  deep.  The  bottoms  are  made  of  lath  with  half-inch  cracks 
between  for  ventilation;  the  ends  are  of  five-inch  boards,  and  the 


MODERN  METHOD  OF  HARVESTING 


171 


sides  of  four-inch  strips.  The  crates  are  filled  barely  level  with 
the  tops  of  the  sides,  so  that  when  they  are  stacked  one  above 
another  there  is  at  least  an  inch  of  air  space  between  the  onions 
in  one  crate  and  the  bottom  of  the  crate  above.  This  provides 
for  a  free  circulation  of  air  and  aids  greatly  in  the  curing  of  the 
onions.  Within  a  few  hours  after  the  crates  are  filled  in  the 
field  they  are  hauled  to  the  curing  shed.  This  is  simply  an  open 
shed  with  the  gables  boarded  clown  only  as  far  as  the  eaves,  if 
at  all  (Fig.  109).  Here  the  crates  of  onions  are  stacked  in  tiers 
nearly  to  the  top  of  the  shed.  A  space  thirteen  inches  wide  is 
left  between  every  two  tiers.  This  provides  for  ventilation  between 
the  tiers,  and  also  allows  space  for  temporary  staging  of  twelve- 


g  shed  at  left,  filled  with  empty  crates;  onion  storage  house  at  right. 


inch  boards,  which  enables  the  workmen  to  stack  the  crates  to 
any  desired  height.  The  onions  may  remain  in  the  curing  shed 
until  there  is  danger  of  freezing.  Then  they  must  be  either 
marketed  or  placed  in  winter  storage. 

In  the  absence  of  a  curing  shed  and  onion  crates,  a  considerable 
quantity  of  onions  could  be  cured  in  a  corn  crib,  if  one  were  avail- 
able. The  onions  should  be  spread  over  the  floor  of  the  crib  in  a 
layer  not  over  three  or  four  inches  deep.  If  there  are  more  onions 
than  enough  to  cover  the  floor,  false  floors  about  one  foot  apart 
could  be  put  in,  and  thus  the  capacity  of  the  crib  greatly  increased. 
On  a  small  scale  onions  may  be  spread  out  in  a  thin  layer  in  almost 
any  dry  place  where  the  air  will  circulate  freely  through  them. 
Unless  thoroughly  cured,  onions  will  not  keep. 


172  THE  ONION  GROUP 

TYPES   OF   ONIONS 

There  are  two  general  types  of  onions  grown  in  America  for 
use  in  the  ripe  state.  They  are  usually  spoken  of  as  the  "  Ameri- 
can "  and  the  "  foreign  "  or  "  European  "  types.  As  a  class  the 
American  onions  produce  bulbs  of  smaller  size,  denser  texture, 
sharper  flavor  and  better  keeping  quality.  They  also  ripen  earlier 
and  are  much  surer  to  mature  properly  in  the  North.  Three 
distinct  colors  of  American  onions  are  recognized  in  the  markets: 
Red,  yellow  and  white.  Each  of  the  large  markets  has  its  prefer- 
ences, but,  in  general,  white  onions  are  in  greatest  demand  in  the 
East,  yellow  in  the  central  West,  and  red  in  some  parts  of  the 
North.  There  are  other  intermediate  colors,  but  these  three  are 
the  standards  in  the  market.  Onions  vary  in  shape  from  flat  to 
globular.  The  globe-shaped  sorts  are  usually  preferred  on  the 
market,  and  also  are  likely  to  produce  greater  yields,  for  their 
greater  depth  enables  them  to  attain  larger  size  without  crowding. 

There  are  several  types  of  the  foreign  onions.  The  type  most 
likely  to  succeed  in  open  ground  culture  in  the  North  is  best 
represented  by  the  Prizetaker  variety.  American  grown  seed  of 
this  foreign  sort  produces  bulbs  that  mature  almost,  if  not  quite, 
as  early  as  the  leading  American  sorts.  It  is  larger  in  size  and 
milder  in  flavor  than  most  American  onions,  and  keeps  better 
than  most  foreign  sorts.  The  Gigantic  Gibraltar  is  also  a  foreign 
variety  that  promises  to  be  of  value  in  the  North.  Both  these 
varieties  are  grown  to  some  extent  as  winter  crops  in  the  South, 
by  using  the  transplanting  method. 

Bermuda  onions  constitute  another  foreign  type.  They  are 
the  mildest  flavored,  most  tender  fleshed,  and  poorest  keeping 
onions  in  the  entire  list.  In  this  country  they  are  grown  almost 
exclusively  in  restricted  areas  in  the  South,  principally  in  Texas, 
where  the  soil  and  climate  seem  especially  adapted  to  their  culture. 
They  are  grown  under  irrigation,  as  a  winter  crop  to  be  harvested 
early  in  spring,  and  are  always  transplanted.  Seed  is  imported 
directly  from  Teneriffe,  the  largest  of  the  Canary  Islands,  located 
in  the  Atlantic  Ocean  off  the  west  coast  of  Africa. 

THE    TRANSPLANTING   METHOD 

The  transplanting  method  of  growing  onions,  also  called  the 
"  new  onion  culture,"  involves  sowing  the  seed  in  an  especially 
prepared  seed-bed  (which  in  the  South  may  be  in  the  open,  but 


GROWING  THE  PLANTS  173 

in  the  North  is  either  in  a  hotbed  or  greenhouse)  and  transplanting 
the  seedlings  to  the  field  where  they  are  to  complete  their  growth, 
when  they  are  from  three-sixteenths  to  three-eighths  of  an  inch 
in  diameter.  This  method  is  considered  especially  adapted  to 
growing  the  large  and  foreign  types  of  onions,  and  as  already 
noted  is  used  in  the  production  of  "  Texas  Bermudas."  It  is 
also  sometimes  used  on  a  limited  scale  by  market  gardeners  in 
the  North  for  the  production  of  the  Prizetaker  and  other  large 
onions. 

The  chief  advantages  claimed  for  this  method  of  growing  onions 
are  earlier  maturity  and  larger  size  of  bulbs,  greater  uniformity 
in  stand  and  in  size  of  specimens,  larger  yields,  higher  prices,  and 
saving  in  the  cost  of  weeding. 

The  chief  disadvantages  are  that  the  expected  advantages  do 
not  always  materialize,  that  it  takes  considerable  time,  trouble 
and  equipment  to  grow  the  plants,  and  that  the  transplanting  is 
an  enormous  task.  If  the  plants  are  placed  three  inches  apart 
in  the  row  it  takes  nearly  175,000  to  set  an  acre.  Although  the 
individual  plants  can  be  set  quite  rapidly,  and  there  is  no  particular 
difficulty  in  making  them  live,  the  setting  of  even  one  acre  involves 
a  very  large  amount  of  tedious  labor.  No  one  should  ever  under- 
take to  grow  a  large  area  of  transplanted  onions  until  after  giving 
the  method  a  thorough  trial  on  a  conservative  scale. 

Growing  the  Plants. — One  difficulty  likely  to  be  encountered 
in  trying  to  grow  onions  by  the  transplanting  method  is  that  the 
plants  often  fail  to  reach  transplanting  size  at  the  time  they  should 
be  transplanted.  To  get  the  full  benefit  of  this  method  in  earliness, 
it  is  necessary  to  set  out  the  plants  very  soon  after  it  would  be 
possible  to  plant  seeds  in  the  open.  Although  it  is  sometimes 
claimed  that  plants  can  be  grown  to  transplanting  size  in  six 
weeks,  it  is  more  likely  to  take  double  that  time  during  the  short, 
dark  days  of  February  and  March.  In  localities  where  outdoor 
gardening  usually  begins  about  April  1,  onions  should  be  trans- 
planted not  later  than  April  15,  and  the  seeds  for  growing  these 
plants  should  be  sown  in  a  greenhouse  or  fire  hotbed  not  later 
than  January  15.  Otherwise  the  size  of  the  plants  is  likely  to  be 
disappointing.  The  seed  should  be  sown  in  rows  four  to  six 
inches  apart  in  the  hotbed  or  on  the  greenhouse  bench.  The 
soil  of  the  seed-bed  should  be  thoroughly  mixed  and  well  prepared. 
The  watering  should  be  very  carefully  done  in  the  dark  winter 
weather.     A  fairly  low  temperature  should  be  maintained,  and 


174  THE  ONION  GROUP 

plenty  of  ventilation  given;  otherwise  the  seedlings  are  likely  to 
damp-off. 

Transplanting. — When  the  time  for  transplanting  arrives,  the 
field  should  be  prepared  the  same  as  for  sowing  onion  seed.  Rows 
should  then  be  marked  out  one  foot  apart  and  the  seedlings  set 
in  the  freshly  worked  soil.  Usually  both  the  roots  and  the  tops 
of  the  plants  are  trimmed  to  a  considerable  extent.  A  whole 
bunch  of  plants  is  trimmed  at  two  strokes  of  the  knife,  so  that 
very  little  time  is  required  for  this  operation.  The  reason  for 
trimming  the  roots  is  to  facilitate  planting  and  to  avoid  having 
any  long  roots  curl  upward.  The  tops  are  trimmed  to  reduce 
transpiration  (see  chapter  on  transplanting)  and  make  the  growth 
of  the  plant  more  certain.  The  transplanting  is  usually  done 
with  dibbers,  though  in  loose  soil  the  workmen's  fingers  are  some- 
times substituted  for  the  dibbers. 

•  After  transplanting,  the  crop  is  immediately  tilled,  and  there- 
after the  treatment  is  essentially  the  same  as  for  a  crop  grown  from 
seed  sown  directly  in  the  field,  except  that  no  thinning  is  ever 
required  and  the  necessity  of  early  weeding  is  eliminated.  The 
success  of  this  method  depends  primarily  upon  good  plants  and 
extra  early  planting.  In  the  hands  of  beginners  this  method  of 
onion  culture  is  likely  to  be  a  failure. 

GROWING   RIPE    ONIONS    FROM    SETS 

The  surest  way  for  a  beginner  to  grow  a  good  crop  of  ripe 
onions  is  to  plant  sets.  These  are  miniature  onions  grown  from 
seed  the  preceding  year  (Fig.  110).  Their  method  of  production 
will  be  described  later.  They  can  be  procured  from  almost  any 
seedsman,  and  are  technically  known  as  "  bottom  sets."  These 
are  offered  in  the  three  colors,  red,  yellow  and  white,  but  no 
variety  names  are  usually  mentioned.  If  a  person  wishes  to  grow 
onions  of  a  given  variety  from  sets,  he '  can  purchase  seed  and 
grow  the  sets  one  year,  and  then  store  them  over  winter  for  the 
next  spring's  planting. 

The  Three  Methods  Compared. — The  essential  factors  in  grow- 
ing a  large  crop  of  ripe  onions  from  sets  are  practically  the  same  as 
for  growing  a  large  crop  of  onions  by  either  of  the  other  methods, 
viz.,  very  rich  soil,  extremely  early  planting,  thorough  tillage, 
plenty  of  moisture.  The  distinct  advantages  of  using  sets  as 
compared  with  the  transplanting  method  are  that  the  sets  can 
safely  be  planted  considerably  earlier,  that  it  is  never  necessary 


THE  SIZE  OF  SETS  TO  USE 


175 


to  delay  planting  while  waiting  for  the  plants  to  attain  the  proper 
size,  that  the  planting  can  be  done  much  more  rapidly,  that  the 
expense  and  trouble  of  growing  the  seedlings  are  obviated,  and 
that  the  bulbs  are  surer  to  attain  large  size.  As  compared  with 
growing  onions  from  seed  sown  directly  in  the  field,  the  set  method 
is  more  expensive  on  account  of  the  high  cost  of  sets  and  the 
labor  of  planting,  but  is  much  surer  to  produce  a  profitable  crop, 
especially  under  unfavorable  weather  conditions.  The  sets  may 
sometimes  be  planted  even  earlier  than  it  is  safe  to  plant  onion 
seeds.  The  stored-up  food  material  in  the  sets  gives  the  plants  a 
strong  start  and  they  are  able  to  make  a  much  larger  proportion 


Fig.   110. — Onion  sets. 

of  their  growth  than  are  plants  started  from  seed,  during  the 
period  in  which  the  weather  is  certain  to  be  cool  and  the  soil 
moist.  This  makes  the  onions  from  sets  a  much  surer  crop  than 
onions  from  seed.  The  bulbs  are  usually  larger  and  the  crop 
matures  nearly  a  month  earlier  than  when  grown  directly  from 
seed  (Fig.  111). 

The  Size  of  Sets  to  Use. — When  large,  ripe  onions  of  the  pre- 
ceding year's  growth  are  planted  out  in  the  spring  they  send  up 
seed  stalks  and  the  bulbs  become  inedible.  If  large,  overgrown 
sets  are  planted,  many  of  them  behave  like  large  onions  and 
send  up  seed  stalks.  The  bulbs  produced  by  these  sets  that  run 
to  seed  are  worthless  as  ripe  onions.  They  are  tough,  exceedingly 
strong,  and  will  not  keep.    Small  sets,  on  the  other  hand,  do  not 


176 


THE  ONION  GROUP 


form  seed  stalks,  but  produce  normal,  well-matured  bulbs  that 
cannot  be  distinguished  from  those  grown  directly  from  seed. 
Very  small  sets  do  not  make  as  vigorous  a  start  as  larger  ones.  It 
is  therefore  advisable  to  plant  as  large  sets  as  can  be  depended 
upon  not  to  run  to  seed.  Experience  has  shown  that  sets  from 
one-half  to  three-fourths  inch  in  diameter  are  a  satisfactory  size 
to  use  for  the  production  of  ripe  onions.  This  size  is  secured  by 
screening  the  sets  first  through  a  three-quarter-inch  sieve,  then  pas- 
sing them  over  a  half -inch  screen.  Only  a  small  percentage  of  sets  of 
this  size  will  send  up  seed  stalks,  and  they  are  large  enough  to  make 
a  quick  start  and  produce  large  bulbs  before  the  weather  is  very  hot. 


Fig.  111. — Onions  from  sets,  harvested  and  curing,  at  th 
vigorously,  at  the  righ 


till  growing 


Planting  the  Sets. — For  growing  a  crop  of  ripe  onions  from 
sets,  the  land  should  be  prepared  the  same  as  for  sowing  onion 
seed,  then  marked  out  in  rows  twelve  inches  apart,  and  the  sets 
planted  by  hand.  The  only  precaution  necessary  in  planting  sets 
is  to  place  them  right  side  up  and  push  them  far  enough  into  the 
ground  so  that  the  base  from  which  the  roots  are  to  start  will  be  in 
close  contact  with  moist  soil.  For  the  production  of  large  onions 
the  sets  are  planted  about  three  inches  apart  in  the  row.  After 
the  sets  are  placed,  soil  is  drawn  lightly  against  them  with  a  rake. 
A  machine  has  recently  been  invented  for  planting  onion  sets. 


GROWING  ONION  SETS  177 

Care  and  Disposition  of  the  Crop.— The  tillage  and  general 
care  of  a  crop  of  onions  grown  from  sets  are  essentially  the  same 
as  for  a  crop  grown  from  seed,  except  that  comparatively  little 
weeding  is  required.  The  crop  may  be  harvested  and  cured  in 
the  same  way,  but  usually  should  be  sold  soon  after  the  harvest, 
before  onions  grown  from  seed  are  available,  for  prices  are  likely 
to  be  good  at  that  time,  and  the  onions  grown  from  sets  are  not 
considered  as  good  keepers  for  winter  use  as  those  grown  directly 
from  seed. 

GROWING   ONION   SETS 

When  an  onion  seed  is  planted  the  normal  thing  for  it  to  do 
is  to  produce  a  bulb.  The  size  of  the  bulb  produced  will  depend 
upon  circumstances.  If  the  plant  has  undisputed  access  to  an 
abundance  of  food,  moisture  and  sunlight,  and  the  temperature 
is  congenial,  the  bulb  is  likely  to  attain  normal  size  for  the  variety, 
— perhaps  two,  three,  or  even  four  inches  in  diameter.  If  the 
soil  is  poor,  or  the  season  dry,  or  the  plants  crowded,  the  bulbs 
will  be  smaller;  and  the  more  pronounced  any  or  all  of  these  un- 
favorable conditions,  the  more  strikingly  small  will  be  the  bulbs. 
Onion  sets  are  merely  miniature  onions  that  have  remained  small 
because  of  the  conditions  under  which  they  were  grown. 

Thickness  of  Seeding.— In  growing  onion  sets  it  was  formerly 
the  practice  to  sow  the  seed  late  in  the  season  on  poor  soil.  About 
thirty  pounds  of  seed  were  used  to  the  acre.  The  lack  of  plant 
food,  lack  of  moisture,  and  hot  weather  during  which  the  plants 
had  to  make  their  principal  growth,  combined  with  the  fairly 
thick  seeding,  were  depended  upon  to  keep  the  bulbs  small.  The 
practice  now  among  many  commercial  growers  of  onion  sets  is 
to  sow  the  "seed  on  rich  soil  at  the  usual  time  for  sowing  onion 
seed,  and  to  depend  primarily  upon  the  thickness  of  seeding  to 
keep  the  bulbs  from  growing  too  large.  From  eighty  to  one  hun- 
dred pounds  of  seed  are  used  per  acre.  This  is  at  the  rate  of  about 
two  hundred  seeds  per  foot  of  drill.  Under  these  conditions  it  is 
impossible  for  the  bulbs  to  become  too  large  for  sets  except  in 
seasons  particularly  favorable  to  their  growth.  Then  the  largest 
bulbs  can  be  screened  out  and  used  for  pickling,  in  the  case  of 
white  and  even  yellow  varieties. 

In  sowing  seeds  for  onion  sets,  the  rows  are  usually  made 
twelve  inches  apart  and  the  seed  is  sown  with  a  regular  drill  the 
same  as  for  large  onions.     Sometimes  a  special  attachment  is 
12 


178  THE  ONION  CROP 

used  to  apply  a  solution  of  formalin  in  the  drill  with  the  seed  to 
control  the  onion  smut. 

Onion  sets  are  cultivated  with  wheel  hoes  the  same  as  large 
onions,  and  require  as  careful  weeding.  If  sown  at  the  same  time 
as  other  onions,  they  ripen  earlier,  and  can  thus  be  harvested  and 
out  of  the  way  before  the  large  onions  are  ready  to  harvest. 

Harvesting  and  Curing. — Under  modern  methods  of  handling 
onion  sets,  they  are  harvested  as  soon  as  the  necks  begin  to  lose 
their  sap  and  while  the  tops  are  still  green  and  erect.    If  the  soil 


Fig.   112. — Harvesting  onion  sets,  near  Chicago. 

is  compact,  an  onion  harvester  may  be  run  under  the  rows  or 
each  workman  may  be  furnished  an  iron  hook  with  which  to 
loosen  the  soil  on  each  side  of  the  row.  The  sets  are  pulled  by  the 
handful,  the  tops  immediately  twisted  off,  and  the  bulbs  dropped 
into  a  half-bushel  basket  or  measure  (Fig.  112).  When  filled,  the 
measures  are  emptied  into  crates  similar  to  those  used  in  curing 
large  onions  except  that  the  slats  forming  the  bottom  are  closer 
together.  The  crates  of  onion  sets  are  left  in  the  field  exposed  to 
the  sun  for  a  few  hours;  then  hauled  to  a  curing  shed  or  more  often 
stacked  up  in  tiers  in  the  field,  each  tier  being  covered  with  a 


GREEN  BUNCH  ONIONS  179 

temporary  roof  of  boards  (Fig.  113).  Here  the  sets  are  allowed 
to  cure  until  time  to  put  them  into  winter  storage.  If  the  soil 
contains  considerable  moisture  at  the  time  the  sets  are  pulled,  they 
are  sometimes  run  over  a  screen  before  being  placed  in  the  crates, 
and  the  surplus  dirt  thus  shaken  off. 

The  growing  of  onion  sets  is  an  important  industry,  and  is 
especially  well  developed  in  the  vicinity  of  Chicago,  Illinois,  and 
Louisville,  Kentucky.     From  these  points  onion  sets  are  shipped 


Fig.  113. — Onion  sets  curing  in  field.    Note  temporary  roof  over  tier  of  crates. 

by  the  carload  to  all  parts  of  the  country.  Before  being  shipped 
out,  the  sets  are  cleaned  by  being  run  through  a  machine  similar 
to  a  fanning  mill. 

GREEN   BUNCH   ONIONS 

While  ripe  onions  constitute  the  more  important  crop,  green 
onions  are  included  in  the  majority  of  home  gardens  and  are  also 
quite  extensively  produced  by  market  gardeners.  They  are  called 
"  bunch  onions  "  because  they  are  tied  in  bunches  when  placed 
on  the  market.  The  simplest  way  to  grow  green  onions,  and  the 
method  employed  by  most  home  gardeners,  is  to  plant  ordinary 


180  THE  ONION  GROUP 

onion  sets  early  in  the  spring,  and  pull  the  green  onions  when  they 
have  attained  the  desired  size.  The  larger  the  sets,  the  quicker 
they  will  produce  green  onions  of  edible  size;  but  unless  green 
onions  grown  from  large  sets  are  pulled  promptly  they  usually 
start  to  send  up  seed  stalks,  and  soon  become  strong  and  tough. 
Large  sets  will  produce  green  onions  ready  for  eating  in  about 
four  weeks  from  the  time  of  planting;  small  sets  require  from  six 
to  eight  weeks. 

The  earliest  green  onions  in  spring  are  obtained  by  the  fall 
planting  of  multiplier,  perennial  or  potato  onions.  In  all  cases, 
small  bulbs  are  planted.  These  produce  green  onions  early  in 
the  spring,  and  if  allowed  to  continue  growth,  the  multiplier 
and  potato  onions  will  develop  large  ripe  bulbs.  If  these  large 
bulbs  are  planted,  they  break  up  into  clusters  of  small  bulbs,  which 
in  turn  may  be  planted  for  the  production  of  green  onions  or  large 
bulbs.  In  the  case  of  the  perennial  or  "  tree  "  onions,  as  they  are 
sometimes  called,  a  cluster  of  little  bulbs  is  produced  at  the  top 
of  the  stalk,  where  seed  is  produced  in  an  ordinary  onion.  The 
little  bulbs  are  known  as  top  sets.  The  bottom  also  divides  as  in 
the  case  of  the  multiplier  and  potato  onions,  but  no  large  bulbs 
are  ever  produced.  Both  the  top  sets  and  the  divided  bottoms 
may  be  planted  for  the  production  of  green  onions.  The  divided 
bottoms  produce  larger  and  earlier  green  onions  than  the  top  sets. 

In  central  latitudes,  the  perennial  or  tree  onions  should  be 
planted  about  September  1.  Furrows  about  four  inches  deep 
should  be  made  in  rich,  thoroughly  prepared  soil,  and  the  bulbs 
planted  in  the  bottom  of  the  furrows,  which  should  then  be.  filled 
with  loose  soil  or  very  fine  compost.  If  compost  is  not  used  at 
the  time  of  planting  it  is  a  common  practice  to  mulch  the  bed 
with  this  material  late  in  fall.  In  either  case  only  sufficient  tillage 
is  given  to  keep  down  weeds.  The  onions  grow  nearly  to  edible 
size  in  the  fall,  and  the  deep  planting  insures  long  white  "  stems." 
As  soon  as  the  frost  leaves  the  ground  in  spring  and  the  tops  of 
the  onions  start  to  grow,  those  produced  from  the  divided  bottoms 
will  be  ready  to  use,  and  those  from  the  top  sets  will  follow  shortly 
after.  Any  of  the  onions  not  used  while  green  may  be  allowed 
to  remain  for  the  production  of  top  sets  and  divided  bottoms  for 
planting  the  next  fall.  They  usually  mature  by  the  first  of  August 
and  should  be  cured  before  being  planted. 

These  perennial  or  tree  onions,  also  the  multiplier  and  potato 
onions,  may  be  planted  later  in  the  fall  than  September  1,  if 


OTHER  ONION-LIKE  PLANTS  181 

desired,  but  in  that  case  they  produce  a  later  crop,  since  their 
principal  growth  is  made  in  the  spring  instead  of  the  fall.  The 
method  of  growing  green  onions  from  sets  of  multiplier  and  potato 
onions  is  essentially  the  same  as  from  perennial  or  tree  onions. 

The  variety  of  perennial  onion  most  extensively  grown  is 
known  as  the  Egyptian  or  perennial  tree  onion.  It  is  also  referred 
to  by  gardeners  as  the  "  winter  onion,"  because  it  will  survive 
the  winter  without  protection. 

Green  onions  for  late  use  may  be  grown  from  seed  sown  the 
same  as  for  the  production  of  ripe  onions;  but  usually  the  demand 
for  green  onions  is  not  so  great  at  that  season  of  the  year,  and 
seed  is  seldom  sown  especially  for  the  production  of  green  onions. 
It  is  customary  in  the  home  garden,  however,  to  pull  green  onions 
from  the  growing  crop  at  any  time  they  are  desired  for  the  table. 
Also  market  gardeners  sometimes  harvest  part  of  their  onion  crop 
at  this  stage  if  the  demand  is  good.  If  the  plants  stand  rather 
thick,  this  pulling  of  some  of  the  green  onions  amounts  only  to 
a  thinning  of  the  crop  that  remains. 

OTHER    ONION-LIKE    PLANTS 

Leeks. — Although  essentially  a  cool  season  crop,  the  leek  will 
stand  extremes  of  heat  as  well  as  cold.  The  seed  is  usually  sown 
in  early  spring  where  the  plants  are  to  remain  and  the  crop  is  not 
harvested  until  shortly  before  the  ground  freezes  in  the  fall.  Some- 
times the  plants  are  transplanted  about  the  first  of  July,  being 
placed  in  trenches  which  are  gradually  filled  as  the  season  advances, 
so  that  the  plants  will  be  blanched  to  a  considerable  height.  If 
not  transplanted,  the  plants  are  banked  with  earth  in  order  to 
effect  the  blanching. 

Rich  soil,  an  abundance  of  moisture  and  good  tillage  are  re- 
quired for  the  production  of  large  leeks.  A  leek  resembles  a  green 
onion  in  shape,  but  is  much  larger  when  properly  grown.  The 
larger  and  longer  the  blanched  portion,  the  better  the  leek  (Fig. 
114).  Leeks  are  used  principally  for  flavoring  soups  and  stews  in 
place  of  onions.  They  are  milder  in  flavor  but  coarser  and  tougher 
in  texture.  They  are  used  principally  during  the  late  fall  and 
winter  months. 

Garlic. — Anything  which  leeks  may  lack  in  intensity  of  flavor 
is  fully  made  up  in  the  garlic.  This  vegetable  is  used  principally 
for  flavoring  stews  and  salads,  and  also  in  hotels  for  removing  the 
tainted  taste  from  "  ripe  "  meats.    The  garlic  is  so  strong  that  all 


182  THE  ONION  GROUP 

that  is  necessary  to  flavor  a  salad  is  to  rub  a  little  piece  of  a  raw 
bulb  over  the  inside  of  the  dish  in  which  the  salad  is  to  be  made. 
In  some  parts  of  Europe  and  by  certain  foreign  peoples  in  America, 
garlic  is  cooked  and  served  as  a  side  dish  as  other  vegetables. 


C'L*.*"'  ^'"••r^SVw? 


Fig.   114. — A  good  sample  of  leeks — long  and  well  blanched. 

A  garlic  bulb  is  made  up  of  a  number  of  small  divisions,  known 
as  "  cloves  "  (Fig.  115).  Each  clove  is  surrounded  by  a  thin 
membrane  like  the  outside  skin  of  an  onion,  and  the  entire  bulb 


SHALLOTS  183 

is  also  encased  in  a  similar  membrane.  To  plant  a  crop  of  garlic, 
all  that  is  necessary  is  to  pull  the  bulbs  to  pieces  and  plant  the 
separate  cloves  like  onion  sets.  Planting  should  be  done  in  early- 
spring.  The  care  of  the  crop  is  similar  to  that  of  onions.  The 
plants  continue  growth  through  hot,  dry  weather.  The  crop  is 
usually  harvested  in  early  fall  and  cured  for  winter  use  by  hanging 
up  the  bulbs  in  long  "  strings  "  held  together  by  braiding  the  tops. 
Shallots. — The  shallot  differs  in  structure  from  the  garlic  in 
that  the  separate  cloves  are  not  enclosed  by  a  common  sheath, 
so  that  the  mature  plant  consists  of  a  cluster  of  elongated  bulbs 


Fig.   115.— Garlic  bulbs. 

joined  to  a  common  base.  The  bulbs  are  separated  for  planting, 
and  each  one  produces  a  cluster  of  bulbs  like  the  original. 

Shallots  should  be  planted  in  early  spring  about  four  inches 
apart  in  the  row,  and  cared  for  like  onions.  The  crop  will  ripen 
about  the  same  time  as  onions,  and  may  be  cured  in  the  same  way. 
The  bulbs  keep  well  and  may  be  stored  for  winter  use.  They 
are  used  principally  for  flavoring,  and  are  milder  than  most  onions. 

Sometimes  shallots  are  planted  late  in  the  fall  in  the  South 
and  are  pulled  and  marketed  like  green  bunch  onions  during  the 
winter.  They  are  shipped  to  the  North  at  a  time  when  local 
bunch  onions  cannot  be  produced. 


184  THE  ONION  GROUP 

Chives  are  perennial  onion-like  plants  that  grow  in  dense 
tufts,  their  interlacing  roots  forming  a  sod.  The  leaves  are  about 
the  size  of  straws  and  are  the  parts  used  for  flavoring.  They  may 
be  sheared  from  the  plant  at  any  time  desired,  and  new  foliage 
will  quickly  form.  The  plant  is  propagated  by  dividing  the  masses 
of  roots.  This  is  usually  done  in  early  spring.  The  clumps  may 
be  placed  in  checks  about  twelve  inches  apart  each  way,  and  culti- 
vated both  ways  with  a  wheel  hoe.  If  desired  for  use  after  the 
growing  season  is  over,  the  clumps  may  be  dug  late  in  fall  and 
placed  in  flats  in  a  coldframe  or  greenhouse. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  is  the  relative  importance  of  onions  as  compared  with  other  vege- 

table crops  in  the  United  States? 

2.  What  climatic  conditions  are  best  suited  to  the  growing  of  onions? 

3.  In  what  two  distinct  forms,  or  stages  of  development,  may  onions  be 

marketed?    Which  is  the  more  important  crop? 

4.  In  what  three  different  ways  may  dry  or  ripe  onions  be  produced?    In 

which  of  these  ways  are  most  of  the  onions  in  the  United  States  pro- 
duced? 

5.  What  preparatory  cropping  and  treatment  are  advisable  in  fitting  a 

piece  of  land  for  the  growing  of  onions? 

6.  What  soil  conditions  are  essential  to  the  profitable  culture  of  onions? 

7.  Describe  the  preparation  of  the  soil  for  sowing  onion  seeds. 

8.  When  should  onion  seeds  be  sown?     How  many  pounds  of  seed  are  re- 

quired for  sowing  an  acre? 

9.  Describe  the  tillage  of  onions. 

10.  Discuss  the  importance  of  hand  weeding  of  onions. 

11.  What  relation  has  the  thinning  of  onions  to  the  size  of  the  bulbs? 

12.  Describe  the  normal  process  of  ripening  in  onions. 

13.  At  what  stage  of  maturity  should  onions  be  harvested? 

14.  Describe  the  process  of  harvesting  onions. 

15.  Describe  the  old  methods  of  curing  and  topping  onions. 

16.  Describe  the  modem  method  of  harvesting  onions  as  practiced  by  com- 

mercial growers  near  Chicago. 

17.  Describe  the  modern  method  of  curing  onions  under  cover. 

18.  What  two  general  types  of  onions  are  grown  in  America  for  use  in  the 

ripe  state? 

19.  Compare  the  two  types  as  to  size,  texture,  flavor  and  keeping  qualities. 

20.  What  three  colors  of  onions  are  recognized  on  the  markets? 

21.  What  foreign  onions  succeed  in  open-air  culture  at  the  North? 

22.  What  are  the  outstanding  characteristics  of  the  Bermuda  onion? 

23.  In  what  part  of  America  and  under  what  conditions  are  Bermuda  onions 

grown? 

24.  Where  is  seed  of  Bermuda  onions  procured? 

25.  What  is  meant  by  the  "new  onion  culture"? 


QUESTIONS  185 

26.  What  advantages  are  claimed  for  the  transplanting  method  of  growing 

onions  at  the  North?    What  disadvantages  may  become  evident? 

27.  Describe  the  method  of  growing  onion  plants  for  transplanting. 

28.  Give  details  of  the  operation  of  transplanting  onions. 

29.  On  what  does  the  success  of  the  transplanting  method  of  onion  culture 

primarily  depend? 

30.  Would  you  advise  an  inexperienced  gardener  to  undertake  the  transplant- 

ing method  of  onion  culture?    Why? 

31.  What  are  onion  sets? 

32.  What  advantages  are  there  in  growing  a  crop  of  ripe  onions  from  sets  as 

compared  with  the  transplanting  method? 

33.  Compare  the  merits  of  growing  ripe  onions  from  sets  and  from  seeds. 

34.  What  size  of  sets  should  be  used  for  growing  ripe  onions? 

35.  Give  directions  for  the  planting  of  onion  sets. 

36.  What  is  usually  the  best  time  to  sell  onions  grown  from  sets? 

37.  What  three  conditions  may  cause  onion  sets  to  be  small? 

38.  Which  two  of  these  conditions  were  formerly  depended  upon  to  keep  the 

bulbs  from  growing  too  large  for  sets? 

39.  What  is  the  present  practice  among  commercial  growers  of  onion  sets 

in  reference  to  time  and  thickness  of  seeding? 

40.  When  do  onion  sets  ripen,  as  compared  with  large  onions? 

41.  At  what  stage  of  maturity  are  onion  sets  harvested? 

42.  Describe  the  method  of  harvesting  onion  sets. 

43.  How  are  onion  sets  usually  cured? 

44.  What  is  the  commonest  method  of  growing  green  onions  in  home  gardens? 

45.  What  size  of  sets  will  produce  green  onions  the  quickest? 

46.  What  kinds  of  onions  will  produce  green  onions  earlier  in  the  spring  than 

the  ordinary  bottom  sets?    When  are  these  onions  planted? 

47.  How  may  a  late  crop  of  green  onions  be  obtained? 

48.  How  much  time  is  required  to  grow  a  crop  of  leeks? 

49.  Describe  the  shape,  texture  and  flavor  of  leeks  as  compared  with  onions. 
50..  How  is  provision  made  for  the  blanching  of  leeks? 

51.  What  are  the  principal  uses  of  garlic?    How  strong  is  its  flavor? 

52.  Describe  the  structure  of  a  garlic  bulb. 

53.  How  is  garlic  propagated? 

54.  How  is  garlic  cured  for  winter  use? 

55.  How  do  shallots  differ  in  structure  from  garlic? 

56.  How  does  the  flavor  of  shallots  compare  with  that  of  onions? 

57.  In  what  two  stages  of  development  are  shallots  used? 

58.  Describe  the  perennial  onion-like  plant  known  as  "chives." 

59.  How  are  chives  propagated? 

60.  How  are  chives  planted  and  cultivated? 

61.  How  may  chives  be  handled  for  winter  use? 


CHAPTER  XXI 
POTATOES 

Potatoes  are  by  far  the  most  important  of  all  vegetable 
crops.  They  are  grown  in  every  State  in  the  Union  and  are  found 
daily  on  the  tables  of  all  classes  of  people.  They  are  always  "  in 
season  "  twelve  months  in  the  year,  and  constitute  the  great 
staple  vegetable  in  all  markets.  Potatoes  are  marketed  in  both 
the  immature  and  mature  stages.  At  the  former  stage  they  are 
quickly  perishable,  and  are  known  as  "new  potatoes;"  in  the  latter 
stage  they  will  keep  for  months  under  proper  conditions  of 
storage.  The  principal  markets  are  supplied  with  new  potatoes 
from  the  South  early  in  the  season  and  with  mature  potatoes 
from  the  North  during  the  fall  and  winter. 

The  potato  is  essentially  a  cool  season  crop.  The  early  crop 
grown  at  the  South  makes  its  principal  growth  during  the  normally 
cool  weather  of  the  spring  months,  and  is  nearly  ready  for  market 
by  the  time  the  weather  becomes  hot,  but  is  capable  of  continuing 
its  growth  into  the  hot  weather  if  a  mature  product  is  desired. 
The  late' crop  at  the  North  finishes  its  growth  in  the  cool  weather 
of  September  and  early  October.  Attempts  to  grow  mid-season 
crops  in  southern  localities  are  likely  to  be  disappointing.  Some- 
times a  late  or  second  crop  is  planted  in  the  South  on  rich,  moist 
bottom  land  after  the  time  of  harvesting  the  early  crop.  If  the 
season  is  cool,  this  crop  is  often  satisfactory.  However,  large 
yields  and  large  tubers  are  produced  principally  in  the  cool  climates 
of  the  northern  states,  such  as  Maine,  New  York,  Michigan, 
Wisconsin,  Minnesota,  and  Colorado.  The  last-named  State  is 
somewhat  to  the  South,  but  high  altitudes  counterbalance  the 
lower  latitude. 

The  early  potatoes  produced  at  the  South  for  northern  markets 
are  grown  mostly  from  northern  seed  planted  on  fall-plowed 
ground  at  the  earliest  possible  date  in  spring,  or  even  in  early 
or  mid-winter  at  the  extreme  South.  They  are  planted  on  sandy 
land  if  possible,  and  heavily  fertilized  to  promote  rapid  develop- 
ment. As  soon  as  the  tubers  are  large  enough  to  satisfy  the 
demands  of  the  market  they  are  harvested,  even  though  they  may 
be  only  two-thirds  grown.     "  New  potatoes  "  from  Bermuda  and 


PLANTING  187 

Florida  command  high  prices  in  February  and  March.  As  the 
season  progresses,  localities  farther  north  take  their  turn  in  supply- 
ing the  markets,  until  finally  in  June  or  July  the  northern  cities 
are  supplied  with  new  potatoes  by  their  own  local  gardeners.  Local 
gardeners  also  usually  supply  the  markets  with  mature  tubers 
during  the  early  fall  months,  before  the  main  crop  ripens  in  the 
distinctively  potato  regions  of  the  North. 

For  the  early  crop,  early  varieties  are  grown,  such  as  Triumph, 
Early  Ohio,  and  Irish  Cobbler.  The  Triumph  is  especially  valuable 
where  the  soil  is  somewhat  heavy.  This  is  a  red-skinned  variety, 
valued  chiefly  on  account  of  its  extreme  earliness,  and  is  of  little 
merit  for  table  use  except  in  the  immature  stage.  For  the  main 
crop  later  varieties  are  grown,  which  produce  larger  tubers  and 
larger  yields. 

Soil. — In  general,  potatoes  thrive  best  on  rich,  sandy  loam 
containing  plenty  of  humus.  The  tubers  are  able  to  develop 
better  in  such  a  soil  than  in  a  silt  or  clay  loam  and  are  also  likely 
to  be  of  better  quality. 

For  an  early  crop  of  potatoes  in  central  latitudes,  the  ground 
should  be  plowed  in  the  fall.  Since  a  good  supply  of  humus  is 
needed  in  the  soil,  it  is  advisable  to  apply  a  heavy  dressing  of 
manure  previous  to  the  plowing,  or  to  plow  under  a  clover  sod 
or  a  catch  crop  of  vetch  or  cowpeas.  As  soon  as  the  soil  reaches 
workable  condition  in  the  spring,  it  should  be  disked  or  re-plowed, 
depending  upon  its  type  and  condition,  and  the  potatoes  planted 
immediately.  Often  commercial  fertilizers  rich  in  potassium  are 
applied  while  fitting  the  land  for  planting  or  during  the  planting 
process. 

Planting. — Potatoes  should  be  planted  about  four  inches  deep, 
so  that  the  tubers  will  have  room  to  develop  without  being  exposed 
to  the  sun  or  necessitating  the  hilling  up  of  the  soil  against  the 
row.  Hilling  potatoes  is  a  common  practice,  but  results  in  injury 
to  the  roots  and  unnecessary  loss  of  moisture  from  the  soil  at  a 
time  when  the  crop  is  most  in  need  of  moisture.  Except  in  shallow 
or  poorly  drained  soils  it  is  best  to  plant  the  potatoes  deep  and 
give  them  level  culture. 

Small  areas  of  potatoes  are  planted  by  hand,  while  large  areas 
are  often  planted  by  special  machinery.  For  hand  planting,  the 
land  is  furrowed  out  by  means  of  a  single-shovel  or  turning  plow, 
and  the  seed  pieces  dropped  by  hand  in  a  straight  line  along  the 
bottom  of  the  furrow.     The  furrows  are  then  filled  in  with  the 


188 


POTATOES 


plow  or  with  a  corn  cultivator.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  throw  the  soil 
up  in  a  ridge  over  each  furrow  in  which  the  potatoes  are  planted, 
and  then  work  the  field  down  level  by  means  of  a  harrow  two  or 
three  weeks  later,  thus  killing  all  the  little  weeds  directly  in  the 
potato  row  and  leaving  the  surface  soil  thoroughly  stirred  close 
about  the  plants  just  as  they  are  coming  up. 

Potato-planting  machines  open  the  furrow,  drop  and  cover 
the  potatoes,  and  distribute  fertilizer,  if  desired,  all  at  one  opera- 
lion  (Fig.  116).    They  are  used  extensively  by  commercial  potato 


growers  at  the  North,  but  are  seldom  seen  at  the  South,  where 
hand  labor  is  cheaper  and  more  abundant. 

The  distance  of  planting  potatoes  varies  somewhat  with  the 
variety,  but  more  with  the  individual  notions  of  the  growers.  A 
common  distance  between  the  rows  is  thirty  to  thirty-six  inches. 
The  distance  between  the  plants  in  the  row  varies  from  ten  to 
eighteen  inches,  with  fourteen  inches  as  a  very  common  and  satis- 
factory distance.  Sometimes  potatoes  are  planted  in  checks 
twenty-eight  to  thirty  inches  apart,  and  cultivated  both  ways, 
but  the  more  usual  practice  is  to  plant  in  drills  and  cultivate  only 
one  way  after  the  plants  are  up. 


INSECT  AND  FUNGOUS  ENEMIES  189 

In  planting  potatoes,  a  tuber  or  piece  of  a  tuber  is  used  for 
the  "  seed."  There  has  been  considerable  difference  of  opinion 
as  to  the  proper  size  of  the  seed  piece,  but  it  is  now  quite  generally 
conceded  that  a  piece  weighing  about  two  ounces  and  containing 
at  least  two  good  eyes  is  a  very  satisfactory  size  for  planting. 
The  objection  to  extremely  small  pieces  is  that  they  do  not  con- 
tain sufficient  food  material  to  give  the  plant  a  strong  start, 
especially  if  the  weather  should  be  unfavorable.  The  chief  ob- 
jections to  extremely  large  pieces  are  that  their  use  may  result 
in  the  production  of  a  large  number  of  stalks  and  many  small 
tubers,  and  also  that  their  use  is  extravagant  in  case  the  price 
of  seed  is  high. 

Tillage. — After  potatoes  have  been  given  the  first  early  tillage 
with  a  harrow  as  suggested  above,  they  should  be  cultivated  at 
intervals  of  a  week  or  ten  days  until  the  tops  have  grown  so  large 
that  they  seriously  interfere  with  the  tillage.  If  beating  rains 
threaten  to  cause  crust  formation,  more  frequent  tillage  may  at 
times  be  necessary.  The  aim  should  be  to  preserve  a  surface 
mulch  that  will  prevent  excessive  evaporation  of  moisture  from 
the  soil. 

"  Straw  Potatoes." — In  some  parts  of  the  country  it  is  the 
practice  to  grow  potatoes  without  any  tillage  after  planting.  A 
heavy  mulch  of  straw  is  substituted  for  tillage,  to  conserve  the 
moisture.  The  potatoes  are  planted  as  early  as  possible  in  the 
spring,  and  the  straw  is  spread  to  a  depth  of  about  four  inches  over 
the  entire  field  as  soon  as  the  sprouts  appear  at  the  surface  of  the 
ground,  or  even  before.  If  a  hard  rain  should  pack  the  soil  before 
the  straw  is  applied,  one  cultivation  is  given;  otherwise  it  is  not. 
The  straw  not  only  conserves  the  moisture,  but  it  also  keeps  down 
weeds  and  protects  the  potatoes  from  the  sun.  "  Straw  potatoes  " 
are  allowed  to  mature,  rather  than  being  harvested  green.  They 
are  considered  of  superior  table  quality,  and  sell  at  higher  prices 
than  other  potatoes  in  some  markets. 

Insect  and  Fungous  Enemies. — Potatoes  are  almost  invariably 
attacked  by  the  Colorado  potato  beetle,  and  frequently  also  by  the 
leaf  hopper.  In  many  localities  they  are  likewise  subject  to  attacks 
by  two  fungus  diseases,  known  as  the  early  and  the  late  blight. 
The  former  causes  a  premature  ripening  of  the  crop  and  lack 
of  size  in  the  tubers;  the  latter  often  causes  the  tubers  to  rot  either 
in  the  field  or  in  the  storage  house.  Both  can  be  controlled  by 
proper  spraying  with  Bordeaux  mixture.     The  spraying  should 


190 


POTATOES 


POTATO  SCAB 


191 


begin  when  the  plants  are  six  to  eight  inches  high  and  should  be 
repeated  at  intervals  of  about  two  weeks  until  the  crop  is  nearly 
ripe.  In  badly  infected  regions,  from  five  to  seven  applications 
are  made.  This  treatment  also  holds  the  leaf  hopper  in  check,  for 
Bordeaux  mixture  acts  as  a  repellent  to  this  insect.  If  Paris  green 
or  arsenate  of  lead  is  added  to  the  mixture,  it  will  dispose  of  the 
Colorado  potato  beetle.  Thus,  one  line  of  treatment  will  hold 
the  four  enemies  in  check.    The  spray  should  be  applied  to  the 


Fig.  118. — Potato  digger  in  operation. 

under  as  well  as  to  the  upper  surface  of  the  leaves  in  order  to  be 
most  effective.  Special  spraying  outfits  are  equipped  for  this 
purpose,  and  are  capable  of  spraying  from  three  to  six  rows  at  a 
time  (Fig.  117). 

Potato  Scab. — Another  common  disease  of  potatoes  is  the  scab. 
This  affects  the  tubers  themselves,  and  in  the  case  of  a  severe 
attack,  renders  them  of  little  commercial  value.  Since  the  germs 
of  the  disease  live  over  winter  in  the  soil  as  well  as  on  the  diseased 
tubers,  two  precautions  must  be  taken  in  order  to  avoid  infection 


192  POTATOES 

of  the  succeeding  crop:  Land  which  has  once  produced  scabby 
potatoes  should  not  again  be  planted  to  potatoes  for  three  or  four 
years;  and  the  seed  potatoes  should  be  treated  with  formalin  or 
corrosive  sublimate  before  they  are  planted  (see  p.  85).  The 
treatment  of  seed  potatoes  for  scab  is  a  wise  precaution  even  if  no 
scabby  spots  are  visible  on  the  tubers  that  are  to  be  planted. 
Apparently  sound  tubers  may  carry  the  infection  if  they  have 
been  in  contact  with  diseased  tubers  or  with  crates  or  other  re- 
ceptacles that  have  been  used  in  handling  diseased  potatoes. 

Harvesting. — Potatoes  are  harvested  by  digging  with  spading 
forks  or  potato  hooks,  or  by  means  of  a  digger  drawn  by  two, 
three,  or  four  horses.  Sometimes  an  ordinary  plow  is  used,  but 
it  cuts  many  of  the  potatoes  and  bruises  others,  and  is  withal 
unsatisfactory  as  a  potato  harvester.  A  modern  type  of  potato 
digger  lifts  the  tubers,  separates  them  from  the  adhering  soil, 
and  deposits  them  on  the  surface  of  the  ground  ready  for  the 
pickers  (Fig.  118).  The  tubers  must  be  picked  up  immediately 
after  digging  and  not  allowed  to  remain  exposed  to  the  sun. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  How  do  potatoes  rank  in  importance  as  compared  with  other  vegetables? 

2.  In  what  two  stages  of  maturity  are  potatoes  marketed? 

3.  What  parts  of  the  country  supply  the  markets  with  potatoes  at  the  differ- 

ent seasons  of  the  year? 

4.  What  weather  conditions  are  most  favorable  to  the  growth  of  potatoes? 

5.  Name  six  states  of  importance  in  the  production  of  late  or  "main  crop" 

potatoes. 

6.  When  are  early  potatoes  planted?    When  are  they  harvested? 

7.  Name  three  varieties  of  early  potatoes. 

8.  What  kind  of  soil  is  considered  best  for  potatoes? 

9.  Describe  the  preparation  of  land  for  the  growing  of  potatoes. 

10.  Discuss  the  "hilling"  of  potatoes.    How  can  it  be  avoided? 

11.  Describe  the  planting  of  potatoes  by  hand.    By  machinery. 

12.  At  what  distances  may  potatoes  be  planted? 

13.  Of  what  does  the  potato  "seed"  consist? 

14.  What  size  of  seed  piece  do  you  prefer?    Why? 

15.  Describe  the  proper  tillage  of  potatoes. 

16.  Describe  the  straw-mulch  method  of  growing  potatoes  without  tillage. 

17.  What  are  the  principal  enemies  of  the  potato  crop  and  how  may  they  be 

controlled? 

18.  Contrast  hand  and  machine  methods  of  harvesting  potatoes. 


CHAPTER  XXII 
PERENNIAL  CROPS 

ASPARAGUS  * 

Asparagus  is  the  most  important  of  the  perennial  crops. 
After  a  plantation  is  once  established,  it  produces  a  crop  every 
year  without  the  necessity  of  replanting.  This  feature  makes 
asparagus  a  desirable  vegetable  to  grow,  for  it  is  certain  to  produce 
a  crop  even  if  the  weather  of  spring  is  unfavorable  for  the  early 
planting  of  annual  crops.  The  nature  of  the  edible  product  also, 
consisting,  a.3  it  does,  of  the  early  vegetative  shoots  (Fig.  119), 
renders  crop  failures  impossible,  for  if  the  plant  grows  at  all  it 
produces  an  edible  product.  The  crop  is  not  subject  to  destruc- 
tion by  frost,  for  in  the  advent  of  frost  only  those  shoots  that  were 
above  ground  and  not  yet  of  edible  size  would  be  affected,  and  no 
single  frost  could  destroy  any  large  proportion  of  the  crop.  The 
roots  are  extremely  hardy  and  survive  even  the  severest  winters. 
While  the  edible  product  is  produced  principally  during  cool 
weather,  the  plants  do  not  suffer  from  the  heat  of  summer,  and 
are  able  to  endure  even  excessive  drought. 

Starting  the  Plantation. — An  asparagus  plantation  is  started 
by  the  planting  of  roots.  These  may  be  either  one  or  two  years 
old.  The  one-year  roots  are  preferable.  They  may  be  either 
grown  from  seed  by  the  prospective  planter  or  purchased  from  a 
seedsman.  If  a  person  decides  to  grow  his  own  roots,  the  seed 
should  be  sown  in  drills  about  one  and  one-half  feet  apart,  early 
in  the  spring.  Since  the  seed  germinates  very  slowly,  it  is  wise  to 
sow  a  few  radish  seeds  with  it  to  mark  the  rows  so  that  cultivation 
may  be  started  before  the  asparagus  plants  appear.  Otherwise 
it  may  be  difficult  to  find  the  asparagus  on  account  of  weeds. 
An  additional  precaution  is  to  hasten  germination  by  soaking  the 
seed  in  warm  water  for  twenty-four  hours  before  planting. 

The  care  of  the  asparagus  seedlings  consists  in  cultivating, 
weeding  and  thinning,  the  same  as  onions  or  any  similar  crop 

*  Adapted  from  a  paper  presented  by  the  author  at  the  Thirty-Sixth 
Annual  Meeting  of  the  Southern  Illinois  Horticultural  Society,  November 
24,  1909. 

13  193 


194 


PERENNIAL  CROPS 


Fig.  119. — Bunch  of  Palmetto  asparagus  ready  for  market. 


TILLAGE  THE  FIRST  SEASON  195 

grown  in  drills.  The  plants  should  stand  about  three  inches  apart 
in  the  row. 

Whether  grown  from  seed  or  purchased  from  a  seedsman,  the 
plants  should  be  set  in  their  permanent  location  in  the  spring. 
Planting  should  take  place  as  early  as  the  ground  can  be  worked 
to  advantage,  since  this  gives  the  plants  a  longer  season  in  which 
to  grow  and  insures  a  better  stand  than  if  planting  is  delayed  until 
the  best  part  of  the  growing  season  of  spring  has  passed.  If 
possible,  the  plants  should  be  set  before  the  normal  season  for 
asparagus  to  start  growth  in  established  plantations. 

If  the  plants  are  grown  on  the  premises  they  should  be  dug  as 
needed  for  planting;  if  they  have  been  shipped  in  from  a  distance, 
they  should  be  heeled-in  upon  arrival,  to  prevent  their  drying 
out,  and  taken  out  as  needed.  This  is  a  wise  precaution,  even 
though  asparagus  roots  will  stand  considerable  hard  usage. 

The  soil  for  asparagus  should  be  rich.  Land  that  has  been 
manured  the  preceding  year  is  preferred.  If  this  cannot  be  secured, 
the  land  selected  should  be  manured  and  plowed  in  the  fall,  if 
possible,  preparatory  to  spring  planting.  In  case  this  cannot  be 
done,  and  the  soil  needs  enriching,  an  application  of  well-rotted 
manure  may  be  made  immediately  before  the  spring  plowing. 

Planting. — Whether  the  land  is  plowed  in  the  fall  or  not,  deep 
plowing  immediately  before  planting  is  essential.  As  soon  as 
plowed,  the  land  should  be  thoroughly  disked  and  harrowed  to 
make  it  fine  to  as  great  a  depth  as  possible.  The  field  should  then 
be  laid  out  for  planting  by  making  furrows  either  four  or  five  feet 
apart  and  from  eight  to  ten  inches  deep.  The  roots  (Fig.  120)  are 
set  two  feet  apart  in  the  bottom  of  the  furrow  at  such  a  depth  that 
the  crown  will  be  five  or  six  inches  below  the  level  of  the  ground 
after  the  furrows  are  filled.  However,  at  the  time  of  planting  the 
furrows  are  not  completely  filled,  only  enough  dirt  being  put  in 
to  cover  the  crowns  about  two  inches.  If  covered  more  deeply 
at  this  time,  the  plants  may  fail  to  grow. 

Tillage  the  First  Season. — As  soon  as  the  plants  start  growth, 
cultivation  should  begin.  A  cultivator  is  used  on  the  ridge  be- 
tween the  furrows,  and  a  hoe  is  employed  in  stirring  the  soil 
close  to  the  plants  and  shaving  off  any  weeds  that  appear  in  the 
furrow.  At  each  cultivation  and  hoeing,  soil  is  worked  toward  the 
plants.  Thus  the  furrows  are  gradually  filled,  so  that  by  the  end 
of  the  growing  season  there  will  be  no  furrows,  but  the  field  will 
present  a  level  appearance. 


196 


PERENNIAL  CROPS 


Dressing  with  Manure. — When  the  season's  growth  is  over, 
the  tops  are  mowed  and  removed  from  the  field.  A  dressing  of 
manure  may  be  applied  broadcast  at  this  time  or  early  in  the  spring. 
In  either  case,  the  spring  treatment  of  the  field  consists  in  disking 
the  manure  thoroughly  into  the  soil  before  the  asparagus  starts 
to  grow.  This  work  should  usually  be  done  at  the  earliest  date 
the  soil  is  in  workable  condition.  Since  the  roots  are  planted 
deeply  there  is  no  danger  of  injuring  them  with  the  disk,  and  also 
no  danger  of  injuring  any  shoots  if  the  work  is  done  sufficiently 
early.  The  field  is  disked  lengthwise  and  crosswise,  just  as  if  no 
crop  were  there. 


Fig.   120. — Asparagus  root. 

Following  this  early  spring  treatment,  culti  nation  between  the 
rows  is  begun  as  soon  as  the  shoots  appear  above  ground.  This 
cultivation  is  continued  until  the  tops  have  grown  so  large  that 
they  make  it  inconvenient  to  get  between  the  rows  with  a  horse 
(Fig.  121).  Late  in  the  fall  the  tops  are  removed  and  a  dressing 
of  manure  applied  either  at  that  time  or  in  the  spring,  the  same 
as  in  the  preceding  year. 

In  the  spring  of  the  third  year — that  is,  two  full  years  after 
the  asparagus  is  planted — a  light  crop  of  shoots  may  be  cut,  but 
under  no  consideration  should  the  cutting  continue  for  more  than 


TILLAGE  OF  AN  ESTABLISHED  PLANTATION 


197 


three  weeks,  for  excessive  cutting  from  a  plantation  of  this  age 
would  seriously  weaken  the  plants  and  might  result  in  the  perma- 
nent injury  of  the  plantation. 

Tillage  of  an  Established  Plantation. — The  principal  cultiva- 
tion of  an  asparagus  field  the  third  year  and  each  succeeding  year 
consists  of  a  thorough  disking  before  growth  starts  in  the  spring 
and  another  equally  thorough  disking  at  the  close  of  the  cutting 
season.  It  is  true  that  this  latter  disking  cuts  off  many  shoots 
that  might  be  saved  to  the  plant  if  a  more  laborious  method  of 
tillage  were  employed;  but  since  no  cultivation  is  given  during 


ation  as  it  appears 

the  cutting  season,  the  weeds  are  usually  very  abundant  and  well 
established  at  this  time,  and  no  other  method  of  treatment  can 
compare  with  the  disking  for  rapidity  and  efficiency.  As  soon 
as  the  shoots  start,  after  the  disking,  the  cultivator  is  run  between 
the  rows.  Usually  the  plantation  can  be  cultivated  two  to  three 
times  before  the  tops  become  so  large  as  to  prevent  further  tillage. 
Any  stray  weeds  that  appear  in  the  rows  during  the  first  two  or 
three  weeks  after  the  disking  are  hoed  out  or  pulled  by  hand. 
Some  growers  sow  cowpeas  between  the  rows  at  the  time  of  the 


198  PERENNIAL  CROPS 

last  cultivation.  Late  in  the  fall  the  asparagus  tops  are  mowed 
and  burned,  in  order  to  clear  the  field  of  trash,  destroy  the  aspara- 
gus seeds,  and  assist  in  the  control  of  rust. 

Annual  Dressings  of  Manure. — To  maintain  an  asparagus 
plantation  in  full  productiveness  through  a  series  of  years,  it  is 
essential  that  it  receive  a  top  dressing  of  manure  every  year. 
The  manure  may  be  applied  at  any  one  of  three  different  times, 
but  in  all  cases  is  applied  at  such  a  time  that  it  can  be  worked 
into  the  soil  with  a  disk  before  growth  starts  following  its  appli- 
cation. If  applied  in  the  fall,  it  is  disked  into  the  ground  the  fol- 
lowing spring.  It  may  be  applied  in  the  spring  immediately 
before  the  early  disking  or  immediately  before  the  disking  at  the 
close  of  the  cutting  season. 

Cutting  the  Crop. — As  already  intimated,  an  asparagus  plan- 
tation may  be  seriously  injured  by  continuing  cutting  too  late 
in  the  season.  This  applies  to  an  old  plantation  as  well  as  a  young 
one,  although  the  cutting  in  a  well-established  plantation  in  full 
vigor  may  continue  for  six  weeks  without  seriously  impairing  the 


f  knife  used  in  cutting  asparagus. 


vigor  of  the  plants.  If  cutting  is  continued  for  eight  weeks,  as  is 
the  practice  with  some  growers,  the  shoots  in  the  last  cuttings  are 
likely  to  be  small,  indicating  the  impaired  vigor  of  the  plants;  and 
if  cutting  is  continued  after  the  small  shoots  become  numerous, 
the  bad  effect  of  this  late  cutting  is  likely  to  be  evident  in  the  small 
size  of  the  shoots  during  the  entire  cutting  season  the  next  year. 
The  plants  must  be  given  time  after  the  last  cutting  to  make  vig- 
orous growth  and  store  up  food  in  their  roots  for  the  next  year's 
crop.  A  serious  mistake  made  by  commercial  asparagus  growers 
is  in  cutting  their  plantations  too  late.  For  cutting  asparagus  a 
special  knife  is  ordinarily  used  (Fig.  122). 

Blanched  Asparagus. — The  method  of  culture  outlined  above 
has  reference  primarily  to  green  asparagus,  which  constitutes  the 
bulk  of  the  crop  in  the  United  States.  Green  asparagus  is  cut  an 
inch  or  two  below  the  surface  of  the  ground  after  the  shoots  have 
attained  a  height  of  six  to  eight  inches.  The  production  of  blanched 
or  "  white  "  asparagus  differs  from  that  of  the  green  mainly  in 


RHUBARB  199 

that  before  the  beginning  of  the  cutting  season  a  ridge  of  soil  is 
thrown  up  over  each  row,  and  the  shoots  are  cut  or  broken  off 
several  inches  below  the  surface  as  soon  as  their  tips  appear  at 
the  top  of  the  ridge.  Being  produced  in  the  dark  the  shoots  are  free 
from  green  coloring  matter.  After  the  close  of  the  cutting  season, 
the  ridges  are  plowed  down,  and  the  field  kept  level  till  the  fol- 
lowing spring.     For  blanched  asparagus  sandy  soil  is  desirable. 


Rhubarb,  or  pie  plant,  is  another  important  perennial  vege- 
table. It  produces  enormous  leaves,  and  the  fleshy  leaf  stalks 
are  the  edible  parts.  New  leaves  appear  from  early  spring  till 
midsummer,  but  the  stalks  produced  early  in  the  season  are  most 
in  demand,  and  the  harvest  usually  does  not  last  more  than  six 
or  eight  weeks.  The  later  leaves  are  allowed  to  grow  and  supply 
the  root  with  food  materials  for  producing  the  next  season's  crop. 
The  roots  are  perfectly  hardy,  requiring  no  winter  protection, 
and  the  plant  is  capable  of  surviving  the  extreme  heat  of  summer 
in  central  latitudes. 

Propagation. — Rhubarb  is  usually  propagated  by  the  division 
of  old  roots.  In  dividing  the  roots  care  must  be  taken  to  see  that 
each  piece  of  root  to  be  planted  contains  a  portion  of  the  crown 
bearing  a  bud.  New  plantations  may  also  be  started  by  the  use 
of  one-year-old  roots  grown  from  seed.  The  latter  method  requires 
a  year  longer,  but  is  very  much  cheaper  unless  the  grower  has  an 
old  plantation  from  which  he  can  procure  the  old  roots  for  dividing, 
for  when  rhubarb  roots  are  purchased  they  are  very  expensive. 
Were  it  not  for  the  high  cost  of  the  roots,  it  is  probable  that  many 
more  home  gardeners  would  plant  rhubarb.  This  difficulty  can  be 
overcome  by  growing  the  roots  from  seed,  and  even  though  many 
of  the  seedlings  are  untrue  to  type,  selections  may  be  made  and 
a  very  satisfactory  rhubarb  plantation  established  at  small  expense 
(Fig.  123).  Usually  a  plantation  should  be  renewed  every  four 
or  five  years.  For  growing  rhubarb  plants  from  seed,  the  seed  is 
sown  in  rich,  moist  soil,  early  in  the  spring,  in  drills  about  eighteen 
inches  apart.  The  plants  are  thinned  to  six  or  eight  inches  apart 
in  the  row,  and  given  good  tillage  throughout  the  season. 

Planting. — Whether  yearling  roots  or  divisions  of  old  roots  are 
used  for  starting  a  rhubarb  plantation,  the  plants  are  usually  set 
early  in  the  spring,  though  fall  planting  is  sometimes  practiced. 
The  rows  should  be  at  least  four  feet  apart  and  the  plants  three 


200 


PERENNIAL  CROPS 


to  four  feet  apart  in  the  row.  Usually  rhubarb  is  planted  in  checks 
so  that  it  can  be  cultivated  both  ways.  The  roots  should  be  set 
so  that  the  crowns  are  level  with,  or  slightly  below,  the  surface  of 
the  ground.  The  soil  in  which  the  rhubarb  is  planted  should  be 
rich,  deep  and  well  supplied  with  humus,  for  the  crop  requires  an 
enormous  amount  of  plant  food  and  moisture  to  develop  a  maxi- 
mum product. 

Tillage  and  Fertilizing.— The  plantation  should  be  given  thor- 
ough tillage,  and  heavy  applications  of  manure  should  be  made 
every  fall  or  spring.    Fall  applications  are  usually  placed  immedi- 


■•■-'.. 

K££^*SF'3f^>^^i?«^  ■ 'JSP* 

%mmgmKL&r  & 

Fig.   123. — Rhubarb  plantation  in  Union  County,  Illinois. 

ately  over  the  crown  of  the  plant,  and  raked  slightly  away  in  early 
spring  so  as  not  to  interfere  with  the  growth  of  the  leaf  stalks. 
If  spring  applications  are  to  be  made,  it  is  sometimes  the  practice 
to  plow  out  a  furrow  on  one  side  of  the  row  late  in  fall,  throwing 
the  earth  away  from  the  plants.  Very  early  in  the  spring  this 
furrow  is  filled  with  coarse  manure  and  the  earth  that  was  thrown 
out  in  the  fall  is  plowed  back  over  the  manure. 

Harvesting. — No  crop  should  be  gathered  from  a  rhubarb 
plantation  until  the  third  year  after  planting,  for  that  amount  of 
time  is  required  for  the  roots  to  gain  sufficient  strength  to  maintain 


GLOBE  ARTICHOKE  201 

themselves  unimpaired  in  spite  of  the  loss  of  a  large  amount  of 
their  foliage  produced  in  early  spring.  In  gathering  rhubarb, 
only  the  larger  stalks  are  pulled,  the  small  ones  being  left  to  assist 
in  maintaining  the  plant;  and  at  no  time  is  the  plant  bereft  of 
anywhere  near  all  the  foliage.  In  pulling,  the  stalk  is  grasped 
close  to  its  base  and  pulled  straight  in  the  direction  of  its  growth. 
In  this  way  there  is  little  danger  of  breaking  the  stalk. 

Some  of  the  rhubarb  plants,  and  sometimes  most  of  them, 
will  start  to  send  up  seed  stalks.  These  should  be  promptly  re- 
moved with  a  knife  as  soon  as  they  appear;  for  the  production 
of  seed  is  exhaustive  to  the  plant,  and  uses  up  food  materials 
that  should  go  to  the  support  of  the  root. 

When  rhubarb  roots  become  old  they  are  likely  to  produce 
smaller  leaf  stalks  than  when  in  their  prime.  When  indications 
of  this  condition  occur,  the  roots  may  be  dug  up  and  divided  for 
starting  a  new  plantation,  or  they  may  be  pruned  where  they 
stand,  by  cutting  off  the  lateral  portions  with  a  spade  or  plow. 
This  seems  like  harsh  treatment,  but  is  said  to  be  fully  as  effective 
in  promoting  the  production  of  large  stalks  as  is  starting  a  new 
plantation.   Treated  thus,  a  plantation  may  last  over  twenty  years. 

GLOBE   ARTICHOKE 

Globe  or  burr  artichokes  are  little  grown  in  this  country  out- 
side of  California.  The  large  city  markets  are  supplied  chiefly 
from  that  state  and  from  Bermuda.  However,  with  proper  care 
it  is  possible  to  grow  the  crop  on  the  rich  black  soil  of  the  corn 
belt.  The  easiest  way  to  secure  a  start  with  artichokes  is  to  pur- 
chase a  supply  of  seed  and  sow  it  under  glass  in  February  or  early 
March.  The  young  seedlings  should  be  shifted  to  pots  when  three 
or  four  weeks  old,  so  that  they  can  later  be  transplanted  to  the 
open  ground  without  disturbing  the  roots.  Late  in  April  the  plants 
may  be  placed  in  the  field,  about  four  feet  apart  each  way.  Pre- 
vious to  planting,  the  soil  should  have  been  made  very  rich  by 
heavy  manuring.  Good  cultivation  should  be  given  throughout 
the  season.  If  an  early  start  is  secured,  the  plants  may  produce 
a  crop  the  first  year.  The  edible  part  consists  of  the  fleshy  portions 
of  the  unopened  flower  buds  (Fig.  124).  The  buds  are  from  three 
to  four  inches  in  diameter. 

Winter  Protection. — Whether  or  not  the  plants  flower  the  first 
season,  they  must  be  given  protection  to  enable  them  to  survive 
northern  winters.    The  usual  method  is  to  cover  the  crowns  with 


202 


PERENNIAL  CROPS 


a  foot  of  earth  late  in  the  fall,  and,  if  the  weather  becomes  severe, 
to  supplement  this  covering  with  a  layer  of  leaves  or  coarse  manure. 
Propagation  by  Suckers. — Early  in  the  spring  the  covering  is 
removed.  Unless  the  plants  have  been  winter  killed,  growth  soon 
starts,  including  numerous  suckers  or  side  shoots.  Most  of  these 
should  be  removed.  They  may  be  used  in  starting  a  new  planta- 
tion; in  fact,  this  is  the  usual  method  of  propagating  globe  arti- 
chokes after  a  start  has  been  secured,  for  the  varieties  are  not  sure 
to  come  true  from  seed.  Suckers  for  planting  are  taken  only  from 
plants  of  the  most  desirable  type.  In  removing  the  suckers  from 
the  parent  plant,  care  must  be  taken  to  secure  a  small  portion  of 
the  crown  with  each  sucker.     Otherwise  the  suckers  will  not 

readily  strike  root.  After  re- 
moval, the  suckers  may  be 
planted  temporarily  in  a  nurs- 
ery row,  or  permanently  in  the 
garden  or  field.  An  abundant 
supply  of  moisture  must  be  af- 
forded them  at  the  start;  other- 
H  wise  they  will  die. 
fSs&B^  t<f  Although    the    globe     arti- 

choke is  a  perennial,  the  same 
plant  does  not  produce  good 
crops  for  more  than  three  or 
four  years.  Hence,  new  plant- 
ings should  be  made  at  frequent 
intervals.  Winter  protection 
should  be  provided  every  year. 
The  Jerusalem  artichoke  is 
an  entirely  different  plant,  forming  tubers  somewhat  resembling 
the  potato.  These  are  sometimes  used  as  food,  but  more  often  as 
feed  for  swine.  When  once  planted  Jerusalem  artichokes  persist 
indefinitely.  They  are  exceedingly  difficult  to  eradicate,  and  may 
become  worse  than  weeds. 


Fig.   124. — Flower  bud  of  globe  artichoke. 


SEA-KALE 

Sea-kale  is  a  hardy  perennial  vegetable,  quite  popular  in 
England,  but  little  grown  in  other  countries.  It  is  offered  by 
American  seedsmen,  and  is  occasionally  found  in  American  gardens. 
The  parts  used  are  the  large  succulent  leaf  stalks.  These  arise 
from  the  crowns  very  early  in  the  spring,  and  are  ready  for  the 


SEA-KALE  203 

table  before  asparagus  starts  into  growth.  Since  this  crop  is  cooked 
and  served  much  like  asparagus,  it  offers  an  agreeable  substitute 
before  the  asparagus  is  ready  for  use.  It  also  makes  a  delicious 
salad,  and  is  available  at  a  season  when  salad  material  is  scarce. 
It  should  be  more  extensively  grown. 

Propagation. — Sea-kale  may  be  propagated  either  from  seeds 
or  root  cuttings.  If  seed  is  used,  it  should  be  sown  in  early  spring 
either  in  a  carefully  prepared  seed-bed  out-of-doors,  or  in  a  mild 
hotbed.  If  out-of-doors,  the  rows  should  be  from  one  to  one  and 
one-half  feet  apart,  and  the  seedlings  thinned  to  six  inches  apart 
in  the  row.  If  started  in  a  hotbed,  the  seedlings  are  transplanted 
to  similar  distances  in  the  open  as  soon  as  they  are  large  enough 
to  be  readily  handled.  Here  they  are  given  good  tillage  through 
the  season,  and  mulched  in  the  fall.  Early  the  following  spring 
the  plants  are  set  in  their  permanent  location.  Here  they  should 
be  placed  in  rows  from  three  to  four  feet  apart,  with  the  plants 
two  to  three  feet  apart  in  the  row.  Two  years  later  a  crop  can 
be  cut. 

If  root  cuttings  are.  used,  they  may  be  procured  from  an  old 
plantation  that  needs  renewing,  or  from  the  trimmings  of  roots 
that  are  dug  for  winter  forcing.  The  main  root  has  numerous 
side  branches,  from  which  the  cuttings  are  made,  much  the  same 
as  in  the  case  of  horse-radish.  The  cuttings  may  be  from  four  to 
nine  inches  long.  If  taken  in  the  fall  they  are  tied  in  bunches 
and  buried  in  sand  until  spring.  If  taken  in  the  spring  they  may 
be  planted  directly  after  making.  They  are  planted  with  dibbers, 
and  the  top  is  placed  about  an  inch  below  the  surface  of  the 
ground.  A  crop  may  be  harvested  two  years  after  the  planting 
of  the  cuttings. 

Sea-kale  should  never  be  allowed  to  produce  seed,  unless  seed 
is  needed  for  planting,  for  this  reduces  the  strength  of  the  plant, 
and  strong  plants  are  needed  to  produce  good  crops.  The  flower 
stalks  should  be  cut  off  as  soon  as  they  appear.  It  is  also  a  common 
practice  to  remove  the  weaker  leaf  stalks  if  these  appear  in  large 
numbers.  A  strong  growth  is  also  encouraged  by  annual  dressings 
of  manure  or  compost,  usually  applied  in  the  fall. 

Blanching. — The  leaf  stalks  of  sea-kale  are  always  blanched 
if  they  are  to  be  gathered  for  the  table.  Blanched  stalks  are  nearly 
white  and  do  not  have  the  bitter  flavor  characteristic  of  this  plant 
when  allowed  to  develop  in  sunlight.  Since  it  is  the  earliest  growth 
of  spring  that  is  desired  for  the  table,  the  blanching  can  be  very 


204  PERENNIAL  CROPS 

readily  accomplished  by  covering  the  crowns  with  coarse  litter, 
sand  or  loose  soil,  or  by  inverting  a  deep  flower  pot  over  each 
plant,  care  being  taken  to  close  the  drainage  hole  to  exclude  all 
light.  Under  these  conditions,  the  leaf  stalks  grow  from  six  to 
ten  inches  long,  including  the  midrib,  which  is  also  used. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Which  is  the  most  important  of  the  perennial  crops? 

2.  What  are  some  of  the  attractive  features  of  asparagus  culture? 

3.  How  does  asparagus  behave  under  extremes  of  temperature? 

4.  How  is  an  asparagus  plantation  started? 

5.  At  what  age  should  asparagus  roots  be  planted? 

6.  Describe  the  method  of  growing  asparagus  roots  from  seed. 

7.  At  what  time  of  the  year  should  asparagus  roots  be  planted? 

8.  Describe  the  fitting  of  land  for  planting  asparagus  roots. 

9.  How  deep  should  asparagus  roots  be  planted? 

10.  Describe  the  tillage  of  an  asparagus  plantation  the  first  season. 

11.  Describe  the  late  fall  and  early  spring  treatment  of  a  young  asparagus 

plantation. 

12.  How  soon  after  planting  can  a  crop  of  asparagus  safely  be  cut?    What 

restrictions  must  be  placed  upon  cutting  from  a  young  plantation? 

13.  Describe  the  regular  tillage  for  one  season  in  an  established  asparagus 

plantation. 

14.  How  often  should  manure  be  applied  to  an  asparagus  plantation? 

15.  How  long  each  season  is  it  safe  to  cut  an  asparagus  plantation? 

16.  What  are  the  indications  that  an  asparagus  plantation  is  being  cut  too 

late? 

17.  Describe  the  production  of  blanched  asparagus. 

18.  What  part  of  the  rhubarb  plant  is  edible? 

19.  When  is  the  rhubarb  crop  harvested?    How  long  does  the  harvest  continue . 

20.  What  extremes  of  temperature  will  rhubarb  endure? 

21.  How  is  rhubarb  propagated? 

22.  Describe  the  planting  of  rhubarb  roots. 

23.  Describe  the  tillage  and  fertilizing  of  a  rhubarb  plantation. 

24.  Contrast  the  harvesting  of  rhubarb  and  asparagus. 

25.  Why  and  when  should  the  seed  stalks  be  removed  from  rhubarb? 

26.  What  treatment  is  advised  for  an  old  rhubarb  plantation? 

27.  What  is  the  easiest  way  to  get  started  in  the  culture  of  globe  artichokes? 

28.  What  part  of  the  globe  artichoke  plant  is  the  edible  product? 

29.  What  winter  protection  must  be  given  globe  artichokes? 

30.  After  a  person  has  an  artichoke  plantation,  how  may  it  be  extended  or 

renewed? 

31.  How  long  will  a  globe  artichoke  plantation  continue  to  produce  good 

crops? 

32.  How  do  Jerusalem  artichokes  differ  from  globe  artichokes? 

33.  What  part  of  sea-kale  is  the  edible  portion? 

34.  What  advantage  has  sea-kale  over  the  perennial  crops  already  considered? 

35.  In  what  ways  may  sea-kale  be  propagated? 

36.  How  may  sea-kale  be  blanched? 


CHAPTER   XXIII 
BEANS 

Beans  thrive  only  in  relatively  warm  weather,  but  their 
period  of  growth  is  sufficiently  short  so  that  they  are  usually  able 
to  develop  their  crop  between  the  last  frosts  of  spring  and  the 
first  frosts  of  fall  in  most  localities  where  gardening  is  done  in  the 
United  States.  Some  types  of  beans  require  a  longer  time  for  their 
development  than  do  others.  The  length  of  time  required  depends 
partly  upon  the  species  and  partly  upon  the  stage  of  development 
at  which  the  product  is  desired  for  food.  In  general,  beans  are 
used  at  three  different  stages  of  maturity:  (1)  The  immature 
pods,  in  which  the  fleshy  pulp  surrounding  the  developing  beans 
constitutes  an  important  part;  (2)  the  beans  themselves  at  the 
time  they  have  reached  their  greatest  size  and  before  they  begin 
to  shrink  and  harden;  (3)  the  mature  seed.  The  immature  pods, 
when  in  edible  condition,  are  known  as  "  string  "  or  "  snap  " 
beans;  the  large,  immature  seeds  when  used  as  food  are  called 
"  green  shell  "  beans,  and  the  mature  seeds  are  called  dry  beans, 
or  dry  shell  beans.  Different  types  of  beans  are  grown  especially 
for  use  at  the  different  stages,  though  some  types  are  desirable 
for  use  at  more  than  one  stage  of  development. 

STRING   BEANS 

Only  those  varieties  of  beans  which  produce  pods  that  are 
practically  free  from  woody  tissue  when  at  the  stage  of  develop- 
ment desired  for  eating  are  of  value  for  the  production  of  string 
beans.  Since  string  beans  are  used  at  an  earlier  stage  of  develop- 
ment than  any  other  type,  they  constitute  a  crop  that  can  be 
brought  to  edible  maturity  in  a  shorter  time  than  any  other  class 
of  beans.  Under  favorable  conditions  the  crop  is  ready  for  use 
within  two  months  from  the  time  of  planting,  and  string  beans 
can  be  grown  even  where  the  summers  are  very  short. 

There  are  two  classes  of  string  beans  recognized  on  the  market 
and  on  the  table :  Those  that  produce  green  pods  and  those  that 
produce  yellow  pods.  The  latter  are  usually  called  wax  beans  or 
wax-podded  beans,  while  the  former  are  referred  to  as  green  string 
beans.    Both  the  green  and  the  wax-podded  sorts  are  represented 

205 


206 


BEANS 


by  dwarf  and  running  varieties.  The  dwarf  kinds  are  also  called 
bush  or  bunch  beans  because  of  the  compact  form  and  low  stature 
of  the  plant  (Fig.  125).  These  require  no  artificial  support.  The 
running  varieties  are  also  called  pole  beans,  because  they  require 
artificial  support  and  poles  are  commonly  used  for  this  purpose. 
The  dwarf  or  bush  varieties  of  string  beans  are  much  more  exten- 
sively grown  than  the  pole  sorts,  because  they  are  less  bother  and 
usually  produce  an  earlier  crop.  However,  the  pole  sorts  are  more 
productive  and  continue  in  bearing  for  a  longer  period. 

Planting. — String  beans  are  usually  planted  as  soon  as  danger 
of  frost  is  over,  and  later  plantings  may  be  made  at  intervals  of 
two  to  four  weeks  for  the  sake  of  securing  a  succession.    Plantings 


Fig.   125. — The  bush  type  of  string  beans. 

may  be  made  until  July  15,  in  central  latitudes,  and  the  crop  will 
normally  be  harvested  before  danger  of  autumn  frosts.  Farther 
south,  even  later  plantings  may  be  made.  The  seeds  are  planted 
either  in  drills  or  hills.  If  the  former  method  is  employed  the  seeds 
are  dropped  at  intervals  of  three  or  four  inches.  When  planted  in 
hills,  three  to  five  seeds  are  placed  in  each  hill,  and  the  hills  are 
from  one  to  two  feet  apart  in  the  row.  In  either  case,  the  rows 
are  from  twenty  to  thirty  inches  apart,  the  latter  distance  being 
preferable  if  horse  tillage  is  to  be  employed. 

Dwarf  string  beans  are  among  the  easiest  crops  to  grow,  and 
do  not  require  any  special  treatment  other  than  good  tillage.  The 
pole  varieties,  of  course,  require  support.    They  are  usually  planted 


GREEN  SHELL  BEANS  207 

in  hills  about  four  feet  apart  each  way,  to  allow  sufficient  space  for 
tillage.  Four  or  five  seeds  are  usually  planted  in  each  hill.  Except 
for  the  provision  of  support  and  the  difference  in  distance  of 
planting,  the  culture  of  pole  string  beans  is  the  same  as  for  the 
dwarf  type. 

GREEN    SHELL   BEANS 

Almost  any  variety  of  bean  may  be  used  when  the  seeds  have 
attained  full  size  but  are  still  immature.  However,  there  are 
certain  types  that  are  often  grown  especially  for  use  at  this  stage 
of  development.  The  most  important  of  these  are  the  Lima 
beans.  These  are  of  three  distinct  types,  the  classification  being 
based  primarily  upon  the  size  and  shape  of  the  seed.  In  the  true 
large  Lima  the  beans  are  extremely  large  when  at  the  right  stage 
of  development  for  use  as  green  shell  beans,  and  this  type  is  the 
one  most  in  demand  on  the  market.  This  large  type  of  Lima  is 
more  difficult  to  grow  and  is  a  more  uncertain  crop  than  the  small- 
seeded  Sieva  or  Carolina  Lima.  The  latter  type  will  stand  greater 
extremes  of  temperature.  If  the  ground  should  become  cold  and 
wet  immediately  following  planting,  seeds  of  the  Sieva  type  are 
much  less  likely  to  rot  than  those  of  the  large  Lima;  and  in  hot 
weather  the  Sieva  Limas  will  continue  to  set  pods  and  produce  a 
crop,  while  under  the  same  conditions  the  blossoms  of  the  large 
Limas  may  all  become  blasted.  The  large  Limas  also  demand  a 
richer  soil  than  the  Sieva  type.  In  short,  the  Sieva  Limas  are  a 
vegetable  that  almost  any  one  can  grow  successfully,  while  the 
large  Limas  demand  special  care  and  even  then  sometimes  fail. 

A  type  of  Lima  beans  that  produces  seeds  somewhat  intermedi- 
ate in  size  between  the  large-  and  the  small-seeded  sorts,  is  known 
as  the  potato  Lima,  from  the  shape  of  the  seeds,  which  are  short 
and  thick. 

Until  about  thirty-five  years  ago  Lima  beans  were  known  only 
in  the  pole  or  running  form.  Now,  all  three  types  are  represented 
in  bush  form  also.  The  pole  varieties  are  usually  more  productive 
than  the  bush  sorts,  and  are  still  extensively  grown  in  spite  of  the 
inconvenience  and  expense  of  providing  them  with  supports. 

Temperature  Requirements. — In  general,  Lima  beans  require 
higher  temperature  and  richer  soil  than  string  beans.  Under 
normal  seasonal  conditions  it  is  unwise  to  plant  Limas  until  nearly 
two  weeks  after  it  is  perfectly  safe  to  make  the  earliest  planting  of 
the  string  beans.    For  the  sake  of  securing  an  earlier  crop,  Lima 


208 


BEANS 


beans  are  sometimes  transplanted.  In  this  case  the  seeds  must 
be  planted  on  inverted  sods  or  in  dirt  bands  (see  chapter  on  trans- 
planting), to  avoid  disturbing  the  roots  when  the  plants  are  moved. 
The  plants  are  allowed  to  grow  in  the  hotbeds  for  only  about  three 
weeks,  for  they  quickly  reach  transplanting  size.  The  transplant- 
ing method  is  seldom  employed  except  for  the  large-seeded  pole 
varieties.  This  type  is  also  sometimes  manured  in  the  hills,  in 
order  to  stimulate  rapid  growth  and  increase  the  yield. 

Pole  Limas  are  normally  planted  in  hills  about  four  feet  apart 


Ip  beans  with  laths  for  supports 


each  way,  and  a  pole  placed  at  each  hill  to  support  the  vines. 
In  regions  where  native  timber  is  abundant,  the  poles  are  usually 
slender  hickory  or  oak  saplings  from  seven  to  nine  feet  long, 
with  the  bark  left  on.  These  are  sharpened  at  the  base,  where 
they  are  usually  about  one  and  one-half  inches  in  diameter,  and 
are  either  placed  where  the  hills  are  to  stand,  before  the  seeds 
are  planted,  or  inserted  after  the  plants  are  up  but  before  they 
begin  to  run.  The  latter  method  makes  early  tillage  more  conveni- 
ent, and  also  saves  time  during  the  busy  planting  season.  In 
either  case  the  poles  may  be  inserted  in  holes  made  with  a  crow- 


OTHER  TYPES  OF  GREEN  SHELL  BEANS 


209 


bar,  or  may  be  forcibly  pushed  into  the  ground  when  the  soil  is 
soft  following  a  heavy  rain.  If  it  is  expected  that  each  pole  will 
stand  erect,  independent  of  others,  the  former  method  of  insert- 
ing the  poles  should  be  employed.  It  is  a  common  practice,  how- 
ever, to  lean  the  poles  of  four  adjacent  hills  together  in  the  form 
of  a  wigwam,  and  tie  them  where  they  cross  near  the  top.  Thus 
they  help  support  each  other,  and  there  is  no  danger  of  any  poles 
being  blown  down  when  heavily  laden  with  the  crop.  In  localities 
where  bean  poles  can  not  readily  be  secured,  two  pieces  of  ordinary 


plastering  lath  may  be  nailed  together  and  made  to  serve  as  a 
substitute  for  a  pole.  Such  "poles"  are  not  sufficiently  rigid  to 
stand  alone,  and  must  always  be  tied  in  groups  as  above  suggested 
(Fig.  126). 

Dwarf  Lima  beans  may  be  planted  at  the  same  time  as  the 
pole  sorts.  They  are  usually  placed  in  rows  about  three  feet  apart, 
and  may  be  either  in  hills  or  continuous  drills.  In  the  latter  case, 
the  plants  should  stand  from  eight  to  twelve  inches  apart,  depend- 
ing upon  the  variety.  The  care  of  the  crop  is  essentially  the  same 
as  for  other  bush  beans.  The  dwarf  Limas  of  the  small-seeded 
type  are  especially  desirable  for  the  home  garden,  for  they  require 
little  space  and  no  special  care,  and  are  sure  croppers  (Fig.  127). 

Other  Types  of  Green  Shell  Beans. — Types  of  beans  other 
14 


210  BEANS 

than  Limas  grown  primarily  for  use  as  green  shell  beans  are  of 
relatively  minor  importance.  There  are,  however,  a  few  varieties 
particularly  adapted  to  this  purpose.  They  have  relatively  large 
seeds,  especially  in  the  immature  stage.  One  type  sometimes  used 
for  this  purpose  is  known  as  the  "Horticultural  Lima,"  because 
it  is  used  the  same  as  the  Limas,  though  it  is  an  entirely  different 
type.  There  are  both  pole  and  bush  forms.  The  culture  of  these 
green  shell  beans  is  the  same  as  for  string  beans.  This  type  of 
beans,  and  also  the  various  Limas,  may  be  used  in  the  mature 
state  as  dry  beans  if  desired,  though  their  principal  use  is  in  the 
immature  state  as  above  indicated. 


DRY    SHELL   BEANS 

Dry  beans  are  a  staple  food  product  that  will  keep  indefinitely 
like  wheat  or  corn.  They  are  considered  more  in  the  nature  of  a 
field  rather  than  a  garden  product.  Although  any  variety  of  bean 
that  has  become  ripe  may  be  used  as  a  dry  shell  bean,  there  are 
certain  varieties  especially  adapted  to  this  purpose.  They  are 
for  the  most  part  white-seeded  sorts  that  yield  heavily  and  mature 
their  entire  crop  at  one  time.  The  pods  are  usually  woody  and 
ill-adapted  for  use  as  string  beans,  and  the  seeds  so  small  that 
shelling  by  hand  in  the  immature  stage  would  be  a  very  tedious 
task.  When  ripe,  the  pods  are  brittle,  and  the  beans  are  readily 
threshed  out  by  suitable  machinery. 

Beans  as  a  field  crop  for  use  in  the  dry  state  are  usually  planted 
with  a  grain  drill  or  corn  planter,  by  making  proper  adjustments. 
They  are  also  cultivated  with  field  tools,  either  those  used  regularly 
for  cultivating  corn  or  potatoes,  or  special  tools  adapted  to  culti- 
vating narrow  rows  and  taking  more  than  one  row  at  a  time. 

When  the  beans  are  ripe,  they  are  either  pulled  by  hand  or 
harvested  with  special  machinery  made  for  the  purpose.  They 
are  allowed  to  cure  in  the  field  in  windrows  or  small  bunches  for 
several  days;  then  they  are  either  threshed  immediately  or  stacked 
up  in  a  barn  or  shed  where  they  may  be  threshed  during  the  winter. 

Small  quantities  of  beans  may  be  threshed  out  on  the  barn 
floor  with  a  flail ;  but  this  is  a  slow  and  tedious  process.  For  larger 
quantities,  an  ordinary  grain  thresher  is  sometimes  used;  but  this 
requires  special  adjustments,  and  even  then  is  likely  to  split  many 
of  the  beans.  In  regions  where  dry  beans  are  an  important  com- 
mercial crop,    special  bean  threshers  are  used. 


DRY  SHELL  BEANS  211 

After  threshing,  the  beans  need  cleaning  to  separate  out  any 
pieces  of  dirt,  stems,  broken  pods,  etc.  Where  beans  are  handled 
commercially,  the  receiving  warehouses  are  equipped  with  special 
machinery  for  this  purpose.  If  part  of  the  beans  have  become  dis- 
colored on  account  of  wet  weather  at  harvest  time,  the  damaged 
specimens  must  be  separated  out  by  hand  picking. 

The  threshing  and  cleaning  of  beans  require  special  equipment 
if  the  work  is  to  be  done  economically.  Such  equipment  is  usually 
not  accessible  to  the  home  gardener;  and  the  production  of  dry 
shell  beans  in  the  home-garden  under  hand  methods  of  culture, 
harvesting,  threshing,  and  cleaning  is  likely  to  consume  a  large 
amount  of  time  and  yield  a  product  of  relatively  small  value. 
While  of  high  food  value  per  bushel,  and  an  important  staple  crop 
for  growing  under  field  conditions  in  certain  regions,  dry  beans  do 
not  constitute  a  crop  that  lends  itself  well  to  garden  culture  on 
small  areas.  The  results  are  not  commensurate  with  the  labor 
involved. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  kind  of  weather  is  necessary  for  the  growth  of  beans? 

2.  At  what  three  stages  of  maturity  are  beans  used  as  food? 

3.  What  is  the  most  important  characteristic  of  varieties  of  beans  that  are 

suitable  for  use  as  "string"  beans? 

4.  How  do  string  beans  compare  with  other  beans  as  to  length  of  time  re- 

quired to  produce  the  crop? 

5.  What  are  the  two  distinct  types  of  string  beans  recognized  on  the  market? 

6.  What  other  classification  of  string  beans  is  important  from  the  cultural 

standpoint? 

7.  How  and  when  are  string  beans  planted? 

8.  What  kind  of  beans  are  grown  most  extensively  for  use  as  "green  shell" 

beans? 

9.  Name  and  characterize  the  three  types  of  Lima  beans. 

10.  In  what  two  forms  of  plant  is  each  type  of  Limas  represented? 

11.  State  the  advantages  in  favor  of  the  bush  and  of  the  pole  Limas? 

12.  How  do  Limas  compare  with  string  beans  in  temperature  requirements? 

13.  How  may  an  extra  early  crop  of  Limas  be  secured? 

14.  Describe  the  methods  of  providing  support  for  the  pole  or  running  varie- 

ties of  Limas. 

15.  What  type  of  dwarf  Limas  is  the  surest  cropper  under  average  conditions 

in  the  home  garden? 

16.  What  are  the  leading  characteristics  of  varieties  of  beans  well  adapted 

for  use  as  dry  shell  beans? 

17.  Are  dry  shell  beans  primarily  a  field  or  a  garden  crop? 

18.  Outline  the  planting,  care  and  harvesting  of  a  crop  of  beans  for  use  in 

the  dry  state. 

19.  What  kinds  of  beans  are  mostly  grown  for  home  use  in  your  neighborhood? 

For  market? 


CHAPTER  XXIV 

SWEET  CORN  AND   OTHER  CROPS  WITH  SIMILAR 
CULTURAL  REQUIREMENTS 

SWEET    CORN 

Sweet  or  sugar  corn,  so  named  because  of  its  distinctly  sac- 
charine qualities  as  compared  with  field  corn,  is  an  exceedingly 
important  table  vegetable.  It  is  grown  in  most  home  gardens 
that  have  sufficient  space  for  the  larger  vegetables,  is  one  of  the 
standard  crops  among  market  gardeners,  and  is  extensively  grown 
as  a  field  crop  for  canning  factories.  It  is  available  in  the  fresh 
state  on  the  large  markets  from  early  summer  until  frost,  and  may 
be  purchased  in  tin  cans  twelve  months  in  the  year.  Canned 
corn  is  a  staple  vegetable  for  winter  use.  It  may  also  be  dried 
for  winter  if  desired.  In  central  localities  fresh,  home-grown  corn 
may  be  had  for  the  table  from  about  July  15  until  frost,  if  succes- 
sive plantings  are  made  on  land  that  has  been  plowed  early  and 
kept  in  friable  condition  by  repeated  working  until  needed  for 
planting.  Ordinarily,  however,  only  one  or  two  plantings  are  made 
and  the  product  is  available  principally  during  late  July  and 
early  August.  However,  some  home  growers  and  also  some 
market  gardeners  extend  the  season  as  above  suggested. 

Planting. — Sweet  corn  may  be  planted  at  the  same  time  as 
string  beans.  It  is  tender  to  frost  and  the  main  crop  should  not 
be  planted  before  the  soil  is  fairly  warm.  Some  varieties  will 
germinate  better  than  others  in  soil  that  is  slightly  too  cool  and 
wet,  and  these  should  be  selected  for  the  earliest  plantings.  Ordi- 
narily, sweet  corn  is  planted  about  May  1  in  central  latitudes,  and 
successive  plantings  made  as  desired.  The  latest  plantings  should 
usually  be  made  about  July  1. 

Varieties  of  sweet  corn  differ  considerably  in  reference  to  the 
amount  of  time  required  to  reach  edible  maturity.  In  general, 
the  early  varieties  are  smaller  in  every  respect  than  the  later 
sorts;  the  stalks  are  much  shorter,  the  ears  smaller,  and  the  kernels 
shallower.  The  earliest  sorts  will  produce  edible  corn  in  about 
seventy  days  from  planting,  if  the  planting  is  done  as  early  in 
the  spring  as  the  weather  is  sufficiently  warm  for  corn.  Later 
212 


POP  CORN  213 

plantings  of  the  same  varieties,  that  make  their  principal  growth 
in  warm  weather,  will  develop  faster.  In  northern  locations, 
where  the  nights  are  cool,  a  correspondingly  longer  time  is  required. 
Late  varieties  require  ninety  to  one  hundred  days  to  produce 
edible  corn,  under  the  same  conditions  that  early  corn  develops 
in  seventy  days.  There  are  also  intermediate  varieties.  In  plant- 
ing for  a  succession,  therefore,  due  consideration  should  be  given 
to  the  selection  of  varieties.  For  canning,  the  late  varieties  are 
chiefly  grown,  because  of  their  generally  larger  yield  and  sweeter 
flavor,  though  there  are  now  some  early  varieties  of  exceptionally 
high  quality. 

Culture.— The  general  culture  of  sweet  corn  does  not  differ 
from  that  of  field  corn,  though  early  varieties  are  usually  planted 
closer.  In  small  areas  the  earliest  varieties  may  be  planted  in 
hills  as  close  as  two  by  two  and  one-half  feet;  late  varieties  should 
have  three  to  three  and  one-half  feet  of  space  between  the  hills 
each  way.  Two  to  three  stalks  should  be  allowed  to  the  hill. 
If  desired,  the  corn  may  be  planted  in  drills  instead  of  hills,  the 
individual  stalks  being  allowed  from  twelve  to  eighteen  inches  in 
the  row. 

Sweet  corn  is  cultivated  the  same  as  field  corn,  and  in  addition 
hand  hoeing  close  to  the  plants  is  sometimes  employed  in  small 
areas.  To  produce  a  good  crop  of  sweet  corn  the  soil  should  be 
quite  rich.  Sandy  soil  will  produce  an  earlier  crop  than  clay  or 
silt  loam,  but  corn  on  such  soil  is  more  likely  to  suffer  from  lack 
of  moisture. 

POP    CORN* 

It  is  unusual  to  mention  pop  corn  in  any  treatise  on  vegetable 
growing.  However,  the  demand  for  information  regarding  the 
method  of  handling  this  crop  seems  to  warrant  at  least  a  brief 
discussion  of  some  of  the  principal  points  involved  in  the  culture 
and  curing  of  this  important  crop. 

There  are  three  standard  varieties  of  pop  corn  recognized  on 
the  market:  Rice,  the  rough-kerneled  corn,  which  is  probably 
the  best  general-purpose  variety,  since  it  keeps  better  than  any 
other;  Pearl,  the  smooth,  small-kerneled  corn;  and  Eight-Rowed 
or  Yankee,  a  smooth  variety  with  very  large  kernels,  which  is  in 
special  demand  for  sugar-coating  and  stringing.     Colored  and 

*  This  account  of  pop  corn  is  essentially  the  same  as  an  article  contributed 
by  the  author  to  the  Orange  Judd  Farmer,  in  1902.  Printed  by  permission 
of  the  Orange  Judd  Company,  Publishers,  New  York. 


214  SWEET  CORN  AND  OTHER  CROPS 

variegated  corns  are  salable,  but  at  a  discount.  They  are  grown 
to  some  extent  for  home  use. 

The  requirements  for  the  production  of  a  good  crop  of  pop 
corn  are  essentially  the  same  as  for  field  or  sweet  corn,  and  the 
crop  is  grown  more  or  less  throughout  the  entire  corn  belt.  Some 
growers  make  a  specialty  of  it  and  plant  as  much  as  a  hundred 
acres  each  year.  The  average  yield  per  acre  is  about  one  ton 
(fifty  bushels),  though  yields  of  two  tons  per  acre  are  occasionally 
obtained.  Under  the  same  conditions  of  soil,  weather  and  culti- 
vation, pop  corn  will  usually  yield  as  many  bushels  per  acre  as 
field  corn  and  sometimes  slightly  more. 

Planting. — In  planting  pop  corn  care  should  be  taken  to  avoid 
getting  it  too  thick.  The  kernels  are  so  small  that  if  they  are 
planted  with  a  check  rower  carrying  the  plate  ordinarily  used  for 
field  corn,  too  many  will  be  dropped  in  a  place.  A  special  plate 
should  be  procured  if  necessary,  so  that  the  pop  corn  may  be 
properly  planted.  It  does  best  when  about  three  stalks  are  grown 
per  hill. 

Harvesting. — It  is  tiresome  work  gathering  a  crop  of  pop  corn, 
because  the  ears  are  so  small  as  compared  with  field  corn,  and  they 
must  be  husked  clean.  Two  men  will  gather  only  forty-five  or 
fifty  bushels  in  a  day,  so  that  the  expense  of  harvesting  the  crop 
is  considerably  greater  than  for  field  corn.  However,  the  pop 
corn  is  ready  to  husk  earlier  than  field  corn,  so  that  it  may  be 
gotten  out  of  the  way  before  the  latter  crop  demands  attention. 
It  is  therefore  a  crop  which  the  general  farmer  can  grow  without 
hiring  extra  hands  at  husking  time. 

Curing. — -Considerable  care  is  necessary  in  the  curing  and 
storage  of  a  crop  of  pop  corn.  It  must  be  kept  under  cover,  in  a 
place  neither  too  damp  nor  too  dry.  Until  it  has  reached  a  certain 
degree  of  dryness  it  will  not  pop.  If  allowed  to  become  too  dry, 
it  loses  forever  its  popping  qualities,  and  is  practically  worthless. 
It  is  not  considered  good  feed  for  farm  animals,  with  the  exception 
of  turkeys. 

To  cure  the  pop  corn  some  growers  arrange  a  series  of  floors 
in  their  corn  cribs,  one  above  the  other,  and  place  the  ears  only 
a  foot  deep  on  each  floor.  This  arrangement  is  particularly  de- 
sirable if  the  corn  is  husked  a  little  green,  since  it  will  prevent 
heating  and  will  insure  thorough  curing.  After  the  corn  is  well 
cured,  there  is  sometimes  danger  of  its  becoming  too  dry  if  left 
spread  out  in  thin  layers,  though  it  has  been  known  to  keep 


OKRA 


215 


perfectly  for  two  years  in  this  condition.  So  much  depends  upon 
atmospheric  and  other  conditions  that  no  definite  statement  can 
be  made  as  to  how  long  pop  corn  will  keep.  The  time  varies  all 
the  way  from  one  to  four  years.  After  the  crop  has  become  suffi- 
ciently dry  to  pop  well,  it  will  usually  keep  better  in  bulk  than 
spread  out  in  thin  layers.  A  crop  in  storage  should  be  tested 
from  time  to  time  to  see  how  it  is  keeping. 

Pop  corn  is  always  bought  and  sold  by  sample.  Upon  receipt 
of  a  sample,  the  dealer  shells  off  and  carefully  measures  a  given 
quantity  of  the  corn,  usually  one  pint;  then  pops  it  and  measures 


o  southern  vegetable. 


the  popped  corn.  The  price  paid  for  the  corn  is  based  upon  the 
amount  of  increase  in  popping.  A  good  sample  of  corn  will  increase 
about  twenty  times. 


Okra  or  gumbo  is  a  warm  season  crop  grown  quite  generally 
in  the  South,  where  it  is  a  favorite  dish,  cooked  either  alone  or 
with  tomatoes.  It  is  canned  with  tomatoes  for  winter  use  and  the 
resulting  mixture  furnishes  the  foundation  for  the  soup  known 
as  "  tomato  and  gumbo."  The  immature  seed  pods  are  the  edible 
product  (Fig.  128).    When  cooked,  these  exude  a  large  amount 


216  SWEET  CORN  AND  OTHER  CROPS 

of  mucilaginous  substance,  which  makes  the  cooked  vegetable 
one  of  peculiar  texture. 

While  primarily  a  southern  product,  okra  will  develop  in  a 
sufficiently  short  time  to  make  its  culture  possible  in  central  and 
even  somewhat  northern  latitudes.  There  is  no  difficulty  whatever 
in  growing  it  in  the  corn  belt.  The  seeds  are  planted  in  the  open 
ground  at  about  the  same  time  as  corn  and  beans.  The  rows  are 
made  about  three  feet  apart  and  the  plants  thinned  to  about  one 
foot  apart  in  the  row,  and  cultivated  the  same  as  beans  or  corn. 
The  pods  must  be  picked  promptly  when  they  have  reached  the 
desired  size,  for  if  allowed  to  continue  their  growth  they  soon 
become  woody  and  unfit  for  use.  They  are  in  their  best  condition 
when  not  more  than  half  grown.  The  plant  continues  to  grow 
and  produce  new  pods  through  a  long  season. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Discuss  the  importance  of  sweet  corn  as  a  table  vegetable. 

2.  How  may  the  season  for  fresh  sweet  corn  be  extended  from  about  July 

15  till  frost? 

3.  When  can  the  earliest  planting  of  sweet  corn  be  made? 

4.  Compare  early  and  late  varieties  of  sweet  corn  as  to  size  of  stalk  and  ear, 

depth  of  kernel,  and  time  required  to  reach  edible  maturity. 

5.  What  kind  of  soil  is  considered  best  for  sweet  corn? 

6.  What  three  kinds  of  pop  corn  are  recognized  on  the  market? 

7.  What  is  considered  an  average  yield  of  pop  corn? 

8.  How  is  pop  corn  planted? 

9.  What  two  factors  make  the  harvesting  of  pop  corn  tedious? 

10.  Describe  the  curing  of  pop  corn. 

1 1 .  How  is  the  value  of  a  given  sample  of  pop  corn  determined? 

12.  Is  pop  corn  grown  commercially  in  your  locality?    If  not,  why  not? 

13.  What  is  the  other  name  for  okra?    In  what  part  of  the  country  is  it  most 

popular? 

14.  What  constitutes  the  edible  product  of  the  okra  plant? 

15.  Can  okra  be  readily  grown  in  central  or  northern  latitudes? 

16.  Give  the  salient  points  in  the  culture  of  okra. 


CHAPTER  XXV 
THE  VINE  CROPS 

Melons,  cucumbers,  squashes,  and  pumpkins  form  a  natural 
group  of  crops  that  are  much  alike  in  manner  of  growth  and  in 
general  cultural  requirements.  All  are  warm  season  crops  easily 
injured  by  frost,  yet  with  a  sufficiently  short  period  of  growth 
so  that,  even  though  the  seeds  are  not  planted  until  after  the  frosts 
of  spring  are  over,  the  plants  are  usually  able  to  mature  their 
product  before  the  frosts  of  autumn  in  all  except  northern  localities. 
Owing  to  this  fact  and  also  the  difficulty  with  which  the  plants 
are  transplanted,  these  crops  are  usually  grown  from  seed  planted 
in  the  open  ground.  However,  for  the  sake  of  growing  an  early 
crop  or  in  northern  localities  where  the  season  is  short,  they  are 
sometimes  transplanted.  In  the  transplanting,  extreme  care 
must  be  taken  to  avoid  disturbing  the  roots.  (See  chapter  on 
transplanting.) 

The  vine  crops  are  usually  planted  in  hills,  and,  unless  the  soil 
is  very  rich,  it  is  customary  to  apply  manure  or  fertilizer  to  the 
individual  hills.  Nearly  all  these  crops  grow  slowly  at  the  start 
and  need  special  attention  to  stimulate  their  growth  and  protect 
them  from  insect  attacks.  The  object  of  manuring  in  the  hill  is 
to  encourage  rapid  growth.  Hand  tillage  close  to  the  plants  is 
an  aid  to  the  same  end,  as  is  also  protection  from  the  striped 
beetle,  which  attacks  all  these  crops  indiscriminately,  though  it 
is  perhaps  the  worst  on  cucumbers  and  is  therefore  called  the 
striped  cucumber  beetle  (Fig.  129). 

Striped  Beetles.* — These  small  yellow  and  black  beetles  may 
be  expected  every  year,  though  the  severity  of  the  attack  varies 
greatly  in  different  seasons  and  different  places.  Usually  the 
plants  are  attacked  as  soon  as  they  appear  above  the  ground,  and, 
unless  prompt  treatment  is  given,  the  plants  will  be  severely 
injured;  if  the  attack  is  severe,  the  entire  plantation  may  be 
destroyed.  Since  the  insects  feed  mainly  upon  the  under  side 
of  the  seed  leaves  and  on  the  stems,  the  application  of  a  material 

*  This  account  of  striped  beetles  and  most  of  the  material  on  muskmelons 
in  the  present  chapter  were  published  by  the  author  in  Circular  139  of  the 
Illinois  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 

217 


218 


THE  VINE  CROPS 


offensive  to  their  sense  of  smell  is  usually  more  effective  than  a 
poison.  Various  materials  have  been  recommended,  and,  in  the 
case  of  a  severe  attack,  two  or  three  different  materials  are  often 
used  consecutively.  A  very  satisfactory  treatment  consists  in 
spraying  the  plants  repeatedly  with  dilute  Bordeaux  mixture. 
Usually  one  pound  of  lead  arsenate  is  added  to  each  fifty  gallons 
of  the  Bordeaux,  for  the  purpose  of  poisoning  any  beetles  that 
refuse  to  leave  the  plants.    The  first  application  should  be  made  as 

soon  as  the  plants  appear  above 
ground,  whether  any  beetles  are 
present  or  not.  It  is  far  easier  to 
keep  the  beetles  off  the  plants 
than  to  drive  them  away  after 
they  have  once  become  estab- 
lished. To  effectively  protect 
the  plants  it  may  be  necessary  to 
spray  them  every  three  or  four 
days  for  a  period  of  three  or  four 
^Hi*'  weeks. 

\  i  Another  method  of  controlling 

irfiiUfyii        ,    ■■■<*»*•  the  beetles  is  to  dust  the  plants 

with  land  plaster,  sifted  ashes  or 
other  fine  powder,  to  which  a  small 
quantity  of  turpentine  or  crude 
carbolic  acid  has  been  added. 
Three  or  four  tablespoonfuls  of 
the  liquid  are  thoroughly  mixed 
with  a  half-peck  of  the  powder 
in  a  pail.  The  bottom  of  an  old 
tin  can  is  punched  full  of  holes 
with  a  shingle  nail,  and  the  can 
tacked  to  a  piece  of  lath  about 
three  feet  long.  This  can  is  filled 
with  the  prepared  powder,  and  a  person  walking  across  the  field 
dusts  two  rows  at  a  time  by  shaking  the  can  slightly  over  each 
hill.  It  is  unnecessary  and  unwise  to  place  a  large  quantity  of 
the  powder  on  the  plants,  for  excessive  quantities,  especially  if 
air-slaked  lime  is  used,  may  cause  serious  injury.  Light  applica- 
tions, repeated  at  frequent  intervals,  are  preferable. 

When  the  plants  are  grown  in  a  hotbed,  the  beetles  often  do 
not  find  them;  but  in  case  of  a  threatened  attack,  the  bed  can  be 


Fig.    129. — Striped   cucumber  beetle:     a, 
adult  beetle;  6,  egg;  c,  larva;  d,  pupa. 


MELON  LICE 


219 


covered  with  netting,  or  the  plants  very  quickly  sprayed  or 
dusted,  since  they  are  all  in  a  limited  area.  It  may  also  be  nec- 
essary to  treat  the  transplanted  plants  a  few  times  after  they  are 
in  the  field. 

Melon  Lice. — Another  insect  likely  to  attack  muskmelons, 
cucumbers  and  watermelons  is  the  melon  louse  or  aphis  (Fig.  130). 
This  insect  is  likely  to  be  especially  bad  in  hot,  dry  weather.  It 
commonly  appears  about  the  time  the  plants  begin  to  run.  Usually 
the  first  attack  is  confined  to  a  few  hills,  which  may  be  in  various 
parts  of  the  field.  Unless  prompt  treatment  is  given,  the  insects 
spread  rapidly  to  adjoining  hills,  and  may  be  distributed  through- 
out the  field  by  the  time  the  first  fruits  have  set.  These  insects 
feed  upon  the  under  side  of  the  leaves,  causing  them  to  curl.  They 
suck  the  juice  from  the  plant  and  render  the  vine  so  weak  that 
the  quality  of  the  fruit  is  seriously 
impaired,  and  in  case  of  a  severe 
attack,  especially  in  dry  weather, 
the  vine  may  be  completely  killed. 

Under  normal  conditions,  the 
natural  enemies  of  the  aphis, 
notably  the  lady  beetle,  will  do 
much  to  keep  this  insect  in  check. 
In  fact,  many  growers  depend 
almost  entirely  upon  the  work  of 
this  predaceous  insect  to  control 
the  lice.  If  a  melon  or  cucumber 
hill  is  discovered  to  be  only  slightly  infested  with  lice,  and  the 
lady  beetles  are  abundant,  it  is  safe  to  leave  the  two  species  to 
fight  out  their  battle  together.  If,  however,  the  lice  are  abundant 
on  the  hills  attacked,  or  the  lady  beetles  are  scarce,  a  common 
way  of  preventing  the  spread  of  the  lice  and  the  possible  loss  of  a 
large  area  from  the  field  is  to  bury  the  affected  hills  with  dirt 
where  they  stand.  To  be  effective  this  method  must  be  put  into 
operation  as  soon  as  the  insects  appear. 

However,  the  most  efficient  method  of  controlling  the  lice  is 
spraying  the  vines  with  a  commercial  preparation  of  nicotine 
sulfate,  known  in  the  trade  as  "  Black  Leaf  40."  This  is  an  ex- 
ceedingly concentrated  tobacco  product  and  is  diluted  with  1000 
times  its  volume  of  water  for  the  spraying  of  melon  lice.  Since 
the  lice  are  sucking  insects,  they  must  be  killed  by  contact,  and 
it  is  necessary  that  the  spray  be  so  directed  as  to  hit  the  insects 


Fig.   130.— Melon  aphis. 


220  THE  VINE  CROPS 

themselves.  The  under  sides  of  the  leaves  must  therefore  be 
sprayed.  This  is  accomplished  by  using  a  nozzle  that  is  set  at  an 
angle  on  a  short  spray  rod.  High  pressure  should  be  used  so  that 
an  exceedingly  fine,  mist-like  spray  will  be  produced.  The  spraying 
should  be  done  when  the  lice  first  appear,  and  before  the  leaves 
become  badly  curled.  The  modern  method  of  training  musk- 
melon  and  cucumber  vines  in  "  windrows  "  makes  it  possible  to 
do  the  spraying  much  more  readily  than  if  the  vines  are  allowed 
to  spread  promiscuously  over  the  ground.  The  spraying  of  water- 
melon vines  is  more  difficult,  especially  if  spraying  becomes  neces- 
sary late  in  the  season  after  the  vines  are  large. 

MUSKMELONS 

Two  types  of  muskmelons  are  widely  grown  under  field  condi- 
tions in  America:  The  large  fruited  and  the  small  fruited.  The 
large-fruited  sorts  are  grown  chiefly  by  market  gardeners  for  local 
trade  and  in  private  gardens,  while  the  small-fruited  sorts  are 
grown  much  more  extensively  in  trucking  regions  for  shipment 
to  distant  markets.  There  are  green-fleshed  and  salmon-fleshed 
varieties  in  both  types.  The  green-fleshed  sorts  are  usually  more 
delicately  flavored  than  the  salmon-fleshed,  the  .latter  having  a 
more  pronounced  "  musky  "  flavor. 

The  soil  for  muskmelons  must  be  well  drained  and  contain 
an  abundance  of  humus  and  readily  available  plant  food.  If 
these  conditions  are  met,  it  matters  little  what  the  particular 
type  of  soil  may  be.  The  crop  may  be  successfully  grown  (Fig. 
131)  on  the  light  sandy  soils  of  watermelon  regions,  on  thin 
gray  and  yellow  silt  loams,  and  on  the  deep  prairie  soil  of  the  corn 
belt. 

A  knoll  or  ridge  sloping  gently  to  the  south  and  protected  by 
timber  on  the  north  and  west  furnishes  an  ideal  site  for  melons. 
Such  a  location  will  usually  produce  earlier  melons  than  a  north 
or  west  slope  and  is  better  than  a  level  area  because  the  soil  dries 
out  more  quickly  after  a  rain,  thus  permitting  more  timely  tillage 
in  a  wet  season,  and  resulting  in  the  production  of  melons  of  better 
flavor.  It  is  only  in  dry  seasons  that  low,  flat  lands,  unless  thor- 
oughly tile-drained,  produce  good  melons. 

The  condition  of  the  soil  in  reference  to  its  supply  of  humus 
has  a  marked  influence  upon  the  welfare  of  the  melon  crop.  Be- 
cause of  its  abundance  of  humus,  newly-cleared  timber  land  is 
well  adapted  to  melon  culture,  but  is  difficult  to  work  on  account 


MUSKMELONS  221 

of  the  stumps  and  roots.  Land  slightly  deficient  in  humus  can  be 
put  into  condition  for  growing  melons  by  plowing  under  a  clover 
sod,  or  a  crop  of  cowpeas  or  rye,  or  a  coat  of  manure  applied 
broadcast.  If  melons  are  to  be  grown  as  one  of  the  crops  in  a 
regular  rotation,  they  should  constitute  the  crop  immediately 
following  the  leguminous  crop  designed  to  add  humus  and  nitrogen 
to  the  soil. 

Even  with  careful  attention  to  rotation  and  the  incorporation 
of  humus  by  plowing  under  catch  crops  or  manure,  ordinary  farm 

HE* '.«.:*  vw-  *^-J''&^<&£3 


Er>? 


?#B* 


Fig.    131. — A  good  hill  of  muskmelons. 

land — including  good  corn  land — is  not  sufficiently  rich  to  produce 
a  satisfactory  crop  of  melons  without  the  use  of  fertilizing  material 
in  the  hills.  It  is  only  on  garden  soil  that  has  been  made  exceed- 
ingly rich  by  repeated  applications  of  manure  that  it  is  wise  to 
attempt  to  grow  melons  without  special  treatment  of  the  hills. 
Various  fertilizers  have  been  suggested,  but  the  material  most 
extensively  used  and  most  certain  of  producing  satisfactory  results 
is  well-rotted  stable  manure  or  compost. 

Time  of  Planting. — The  muskmelon  is  a  warm  season  crop, 
and  unless  the  soil  is  warm  and  the  weather  favorable  the  seeds 
will  not  germinate  nor  the  plants  grow.     It  is  therefore  usually 


222  THE  VINE  CROPS 

unwise  to  plant  in  advance  of  the  normal  season  in  the  hope  of 
securing  an  early  crop.  Occasionally,  such  plantings  do  well,  but 
usually  the  stand  is  poor,  necessitating  much  replanting,  and  the 
early  plants  which  do  survive  are  likely  to  be  so  badly  stunted 
by  reason  of  the  cool  weather  that  they  do  not  mature  their  crop 
much  in  advance  of  the  later  plantings  which  have  had  the  benefit 
of  warm  weather  from  the  start.  Under  normal  seasonal  condi- 
tions, planting  can  safely  begin  in  central  latitudes  from  the  tenth 
to  the  twentieth  of  May. 

Preparations  for  Planting. — Melon  ground  should  be  plowed 
early  in  the  spring,  or  replowed  if  it  was  broken  in  the  fall.  After 
plowing,  it  should  be  thoroughly  pulverized  by  the  use  of  a  disk 
harrow  or  smoothing  harrow,  or  both,  and  then  kept  in  good, 
friable  condition  by  occasional  working  until  planting  time  arrives. 
Shortly  before  planting  is  to  begin,  the  field  should  be  furrowed 
out  both  ways  with  a  single-shovel  plow  or  a  one-horse  turning 
plow.  The  furrows  should  be  about  six  inches  deep  and  as  far 
apart  as  the  hills  are  to  be  placed.  On  some  soils  melon  vines 
make  only  a  moderate  growth  and  the  hills  may  be  planted  as 
close  as  four  feet  apart  each  way,  but  on  rich  soil,  where  they  make 
a  stronger  growth,  they  should  be  at  least  five  by  five,  and  in  some 
cases  six  by  six. 

After  the  land  is  furrowed  out  as  indicated,  the  rotted  manure 
is  applied  at  the  intersections  of  the  furrows  (Fig.  15).  Three  or 
five  rows  are  usually  manured  at  a  time,  the  wagon  straddling 
the  middle  row.  From  a  quart  to  a  half-peck  of  manure  is  used 
for  each  hill,  depending  upon  the  quality  of  the  manure  and  also 
the  quantity  available.  The  manure  is  dropped  into  the  bottom 
of  the  furrow,  and  either  mixed  thoroughly  with  the  soil  there, 
and  covered  with  a  layer  of  pure  soil  in  which  to  plant  the  seed, 
or  is  merely  covered  with  the  soil  without  any  mixing.  The  latter 
method  seems  to  give  fully  as  good  results  as  the  former,  especially 
when  a  small  quantity  of  manure  is  used,  and  is  a  great  saving 
of  labor.  In  either  case,  especial  care  should  be  taken  to  compact 
the  soil  over  the  manure  so  that  when  the  seed  is  planted  it  will 
not  suffer  from  lack  of  moisture  by  reason  of  any  vacant  air  space 
in  or  about  the  mass  of  manure.  Sometimes  the  manure  is  covered 
with  soil  by  merely  plowing  a  furrow  on  each  side  of  the  furrow 
containing  the  manure,  but  unless  the  soil  is  in  exceedingly  fine 
condition,  this  method  is  not  as  satisfactory  as  using  a  hoe  and 
giving  each  hill  individual  attention.     In  making  the  hill,  some 


POISONING  FIELD  MICE  223 

planters  compact  the  soil  with  the  hoe,  while  others  use  the  feet. 
The  extent  of  compacting  advisable  will  depend  upon  the  type  of 
soil  and  the  amount  of  moisture  it  contains.  When  ready  for 
planting,  the  hill  should  be  practically  level  with  the  general 
surface  of  the  field.  If  too  low,  the  hill  will  become  water-soaked 
in  case  of  rain  and  the  seeds  or  plants  injured;  if  too  high,  there 
is  likely  to  be  insufficient  moisture  to  insure  proper  germination 
and  growth. 

Planting  the  Seed. — If  the  hills  have  been  made  more  than  a 
few  minutes  before  the  seed  is  dropped,  the  top  layer  of  dry  soil 
should  be  scraped  aside  with  a  hoe  so  that  the  seed  may  be  placed 
in  immediate  contact  with  moist  soil.  The  area  thus  prepared 
for  planting  the  seed  should  be  at  least  six  inches  across,  and  should 
be  smooth  and  level.  From  ten  to  fifteen  seeds  should  be  scattered 
uniformly  over  this  area  and  covered  with  about  half  an  inch  of 
fine,  moist  soil.  This  should  be  firmed  with  the  back  of  the  hoe 
and  then  covered  with  a  sprinkle  of  loose  dirt  to  serve  as  a  mulch. 
If  a  heavy  rain  packs  the  top  soil  and  a  crust  is  formed  before  the 
plants  appear,  it  is  wise  to  go  over  the  field  and  carefully  break 
the  crust  over  each  hill  by  means  of  a  garden  rake. 

The  method  of  preparing  the  hills  and  planting  the  seed  de- 
scribed above  applies  to  field  rather  than  garden  conditions  and 
to  soils  of  medium  rather  than  excessive  fertility.  In  a  market 
garden,  where  the  soil  is  exceedingly  rich  as  a  result  of  repeated 
manuring  for  onions  or  cabbage  and  is  in  fine  tilth,  it  is  a  common 
practice  to  sow  the  melon  seed  in  drills  six  to  eight  feet  apart  by 
means  of  a  garden  seed  drill.  This  is  done  without  any  special 
preparation  of  the  soil  where  the  plants  are  to  stand,  or  applica- 
tion of  fertilizing  material  other  than  manure  applied  broadcast 
before  plowing. 

Poisoning  Field  Mice. — The  night  after  the  seed  is  planted, 
a  large  part  of  it  may  be  dug  up  and  destroyed  by  field  mice.  If 
the  seeds  in  each  hill  have  been  planted  close  together,  the  hills 
that  are  attacked  are  usually  destroyed  completely,  but  if  they 
have  been  scattered  as  previously  advised,  some  seeds  may  escape. 
However,  in  regions  where  mice  are  at  all  abundant,  some  addi- 
tional precaution  is  necessary  in  order  to  insure  a  stand  of  plants. 
The  simplest  method  is  to  scatter  poisoned  melon  seed  about  the 
field  the  day  the  crop  is  planted.  For  poisoning  the  seed,  one-eighth 
of  an  ounce  of  strychnine  is  dissolved  in  a  quart  of  water.  Hot 
water  should  be  used,  since  several  hours  are  required  to  effect 


224  THE  VINE  CROPS 

solution.  Sometimes  a  small  quantity  of  sugar  is  added.  After 
the  strychnine  crystals  are  completely  dissolved,  a  quantity  of 
melon  seed  is  placed  in  the  solution  and  allowed  to  soak  for  twenty- 
four  hours.  The  seed  is  then  removed  from  the  solution  and  scat- 
tered about  the  field  where  the  mice  can  readily  find  it.  Usually 
ten  or  fifteen  seeds  at  a  time  are  dipped  from  the  mass  by  means 
of  an  old  teaspoon,  and  dropped  close  to  a  melon  hill.  These  little 
piles  of  poisoned  seed  are  placed  at  intervals  of  three  or  four  hills 
in  a  row  entirely  around  the  portion  of  the  melon  field  planted 
that  day,  and  also  in  several  rows  extending  lengthwise  and  cross- 
wise of  the  area.  If  replanting  becomes  necessary  from  any  cause, 
a  fresh  lot  of  poisoned  seed  is  applied. 

The  solution  of  strychnine  from  which  the  seed  has  been 
removed  can  be  used  for  soaking  additional  lots  of  seed  until  it 
all  has  been  absorbed.  If  the  last  lot  of  seed  to  be  used  does  not 
take  up  all  the  solution,  corn  meal  is  added  and  the  mass  of  corn 
meal,  melon  seed  and  strychnine  applied,  so  that  no  unused  poison 
is  left  about  the  premises. 

Instead  of  the  melon  seed  soaked  in  strychnine,  a  mixture  of 
corn  meal  and  Paris  green  is  sometimes  used.  This  is  prepared 
by  mixing  an  ounce  of  Paris  green  in  a  quart  of  water  and  stirring 
in  enough  corn  meal  to  form  a  thick  mash. 

When  there  is  danger  of  birds  or  poultry  getting  the  poison, 
the  poisoned  seed  or  meal  is  placed  on  shingles,  bits  of  board  or 
chips,  at  nightfall,  and  removed  in  the  early  morning.  This  is 
repeated  until  the  planted  seeds  germinate. 

Thinning  the  Plants. — While  ten  to  fifteen  muskmelon  seeds 
are  planted  per  hill  for  the  sake  of  insuring  a  full  stand,  only  two, 
or  at  most  three,  plants  are  left  to  make  the  crop.  Thinning  is 
usually  deferred  until  the  plants  have  become  fully  established, 
and  the  struggle  against  the  striped  beetle  is  nearly  over.  However, 
the  plants  must  be  thinned  before  they  begin  to  crowd  badly,  or 
those  which  are  to  remain  will  be  stunted  in  growth.  Usually 
the  thinning  is  completed  by  the  time  the  plants  have  four  rough 
leaves.  If  the  seed  has  been  well  scattered  in  planting,  so  that 
each  plant  stands  apart  by  itself,  the  superfluous  plants  may  be 
pulled  with  the  fingers,  but  extreme  care  must  be  taken  to  avoid 
disturbing  the  roots  of  the  remaining  plants.  Sometimes  the  plants 
are  cut  off  with  a  knife  or  shears  instead  of  being  pulled,  and  thus 
all  danger  of  disturbing  the  roots  is  avoided. 

If  the  seeds  have  been  sown  with  a  drill  as  in  market  garden 


THE  TRANSPLANTING  METHOD  225 

practice,  the  plants  are  usually  thinned  to  one  in  a  place  at  dis- 
tances of  two  to  two  and  one-half  feet  in  the  row. 

The  Transplanting  Method. — Since  it  is  impossible  to  increase 
the  earliness  of  the  crop  to  any  great  extent  by  early  planting  in 
the  field,  some  growers  have  adopted  the  transplanting  method. 
This  makes  it  possible  to  plant  the  seed  three  or  four  weeks  earlier 
than  would  otherwise  be  feasible,  and  to  grow  the  plants  under 
controlled  conditions  of  temperature  and  moisture  during  their 
most  critical  period.  It  also  simplifies  the  matter  of  protection 
from  striped  beetles.  The  main  objections  to  this  method  are  the 
expense  for  sash,  and  the  difficulties  attending  transplanting. 

A  melon  plant  will  not  survive  transplanting  if  the  root  system 
is  disturbed.  For  this  reason  the  seed  is  sown  on  inverted  sods, 
in  pots  or  in  dirt  bands.  The  dirt  bands  are  used  almost  exclu- 
sively by  commercial  growers.  These  are  thin  strips  of  wood 
veneer,  three  inches  wide  and  eighteen  inches  long,  scored  at  inter- 
vals of  four  inches  so  that  they  can  be  bent  without  breaking 
(Fig.  132).  When  folded  ready  for  use,  each  band  resembles  a 
small  strawberry  box  without  the  bottom.  These  bands  are  placed 
close  together  in  a  hotbed  and  filled  level  full  with  fine,  rich  soiL 
With  a  block  of  wood  shaped  for  the  purpose,  the  soil  within  each 
band  is  pressed  until  it  is  one-half  to  three-fourth  inch  below  the 
top  of  the  band.  If  only  part  of  the  dirt  is  put  in  at  first,  and  is 
pressed  down  firmly,  then  the  rest  of  the  dirt  put  on  and  pressed, 
the  soil  in  the  band  will  be  more  compact  throughout  and  will 
hold  together  better  in  the  transplanting  than  if  the  dirt  were 
pressed  only  once.  Unless  the  soil  used  was  very  moist,  the  bed 
is  then  thoroughly  watered.  Next,  three  seeds  are  placed  in  each 
band.  These  are  covered  with  fine,  loose  soil  deep  enough  to  fill 
the  band.    This  soil  is  not  firmed. 

The  hotbed  for  melon  plants  should  have  full  exposure  to  light 
and  be  maintained  at  a  high  temperature — about  85°  F.  during 
the  day  and  65°  to  70°  at  night.  As  much  ventilation  should  be 
given  as  the  weather  will  permit,  and  care  exercised  to  avoid 
over-watering. 

As  soon  as  the  plants  are  well  started,  they  are  usually  thinned 
to  two  in  a  band  by  cutting  off  the  extra  plant  with  a  sharp  knife. 
The  thinning  is  done  when  the  plants  are  about  the  size  of  those 
represented  in  Fig.  133. 

When  the  plants  are  about  four  weeks  old  from  the  planting 
of  seed  they  will  be  in  the  right  condition  for  transplanting  to  the 
15 


226 


THE  VINE  CROPfc 


Fig.   132. — Placing  dirt  bands  in  a  hotbea. 

Fig.   133. — Muskmelon  seedlings  growing  in  dirt  bands  in  a  hotbed. 

Fig.  134. — Lifting  melon  plants  from  the  hotbed. 


CULTIVATION  227 

field.  They  are  then  compact,  stocky  plants  with  about  four 
rough  leaves.  If  allowed  to  remain  longer  in  the  bed  they  begin 
to  stretch  for  light  and  are  of  little  value  for  planting,  for  the  long, 
naked  stems,  unable  to  support  themselves  and  unaccustomed  to 
direct  sunlight,  would  easily  be  sunburned,  and  the  plants  seriously 
checked  if  not  killed  outright. 

When  the  plants  are  ready  for  the  field,  the  bed  is  thoroughly 
watered,  and  the  bands,  enclosing  their  masses  of  earth  and  plant 
roots,  are  lifted  by  means  of  a  spade  (Fig.  134)  and  placed  close 
together  on  the  platform  of  a  low  wagon.  The  wagon  is  then 
driven  to  the  field  where  the  hills  have  previously  been  prepared 
by  mixing  rotted  manure  with  the  soil  as  already  described, 
except  that  the  mixture  of  soil  and  manure  usually  extends  to 
the  surface.  The  hills  are  opened  with  hoes  or  a  plow  just  ahead 
of  the  planters.  When  a  plow  is  used  it  may  be  necessary  to  follow 
with  hoes  to  remove  the  lumps  from  the  bottom  of  the  furrow  at 
the  point  where  each  plant  is  to  be  set.  Five  rows  across  the  field 
are  set  at  a  time,  the  team  straddling  the  middle  row.  The  plants 
are  lifted  from  the  wagon  either  by  hand  or  with  the  aid  of  a  flat 
trowel  made  for  the  purpose,  and  carefully  placed  in  the  hills, 
band  and  all.  Care  is  taken  to  be  sure  that  the  bottom  of  the  mass 
of  earth  within  the  band  is  in  close  contact  with  the  soil  of  the 
hill.  Then  the  band  is  carefully  removed,  and  fine,  moist  soil  is 
drawn  in  about  the  mass  of  earth  containing  the  plants. 

Cultivation. — Whether  the  melons  are  transplanted  from  a 
hotbed  or  grown  from  seed  planted  in  the  field,  the  tillage  of  the 
crop  should  begin  as  soon  as  the  plants  can  be  seen.  In  case  of 
transplanted  plants,  this  will  be  the  same  day  that  they  are  set 
in  the  field.  The  early  tillage  should  be  deep,  and  as  close  to  the 
plants  as  it  is  feasible  to  run  the  cultivator.  The  object  of  this 
deep  tillage  is  to  establish  a  deep  root  system  so  that  the  plants 
will  not  suffer  so  severely  from  dry  weather  later  in  the  season. 
In  the  case  of  a  field-planted  crop  it  is  not  feasible  to  cultivate  so 
close  to  the  plants  early  in  the  season  because  of  the  danger  of 
tearing  out  the  little  plants.  For  this  deep  tillage  a  one-horse 
five-shovel  cultivator,  often  weighted  with  a  rock,  is  the  tool 
most  commonly  used.  It  is  customary  to  follow  this  with  a  "  boat " 
(Fig.  135)  or  a  14-tooth  cultivator  to  more  fully  pulverize  the 
soil.  Tillage  is  usually  given  after  each  rain  or  at  least  once 
each  week  so  that  the  soil  is  maintained  in  a  loose,  friable  condition. 
In  addition  to  the  cultivation  with  the  horse,  much  hand  hoeing 


228 


THE  VINE  CROPS 


is  required  close  about  the  plants.  Any  crust  forming  after  a  rain 
is  broken,  and  fresh,  moist  soil  drawn  up  about  the  plant.  Grass 
and  weeds  appearing  in  the  hill  are  removed  by  hand. 

Most  growers  cease  tillage  and  lay-by  the  crop  as  soon  as  the 
vines  have  run  enough  to  interfere  with  the  cultivator.  The 
experience  of  a  few  growers,  who  have  turned  the  vines  and  kept 
them  in  windrows  so  the  tillage  could  be  continued  until  the 
picking  season  opened,  indicates  that  a  departure  from  the  old 
method  is  likely  to  insure  better  development  of  the  melons  and 
a  longer  picking  season,  though  the  first  fruits  may  not  ripen  so 

early.  There  is  another  distinct 
advantage  in  this  turning  of  the 
vines,  in  that  the  gathering  of 
the  crop  is  greatly  facilitated 
and  there  is  no  injury  to  the 
vines  from  tramping. 

Extremes  of  Moisture. — The 
muskmelon  suffers  severely  from 
extremes  in  the  moisture  supply. 
An  excess  of  moisture  can  be 
largely  avoided  by  planting  on 
well-drained  land,  as  already  sug- 
gested; but  if  the  rain  falls  in 
torrents,  as  it  often  does  in  the 
melon  regions,  the  soil  is  washed 
along  the  hillsides,  and  many 
vines  and  melons  are  partially 
buried  in  mud.  Sometimes  entire 
hills  are  destroyed,  but  usually 
most  of  them  can  be  saved  by  sys- 
tematically digging  them  out.  If  a  melon  fruit  is  allowed  to  remain 
partially  buried,  the  part  that  is  under  ground  does  not  develop 
properly  and  will  be  of  poor  flavor.  In  fact,  if  melons  are  being 
grown  for  a  select  trade  and  the  season  is  wet,  it  may  be  necessary 
to  go  over  the  field  repeatedly  and  move  each  melon  out  of  the 
pocket  of  mud  which  has  been  made  about  it  by  the  rain;  for  the 
smaller  the  point  of  contact  of  the  melon  with  the  earth,  the  more 
nearly  will  the  lower  side  equal  the  upper  in  reference  to  flavor. 
The  old  gardeners'  practice  of  inserting  a  shingle  or  piece  of  slate 
under  each  melon  for  the  sake  of  improving  its  flavor  is  not  with- 
out foundation. 


35. — "Boat,"   a   home-made 
used  in  the  tillage  of  melons 


MELON  RUST  229 

While  excessive  rainfall  is  unfavorable  to  the  proper  growth 
and  development  of  muskmelons,  and  comparatively  dry  weather 
at  the  time  of  maturity  is  considered  essential  to  the  production 
of  melons  of  the  highest  quality,  yet  muskmelons  will  not  with- 
stand as  much  drought  as  watermelons.  Extremely  dry  weather 
associated  with  excessively  high  temperatures,  especially  if  these 
conditions  obtain  before  the  melons  are  netted  and  continue  for 
a  considerable  time,  will  sometimes  cause  the  melons  to  ripen 
prematurely  without  properly  netting  and  to  be  of  little  commercial 
value.  In  an  unirrigated  region,  little  can  be  done  to  help  the  crop 
under  such  conditions,  though  the  influence  of  an  ordinary  drought 
can  be  largely  overcome  by  continuing  tillage  until  late  in  the 
season,  as  already  suggested. 

Melon  Rust. — After  the  muskmelon  crop  has  escaped  the 
ravages  of  the  mice,  beetles  and  lice,  and  the  melons  are  almost 
ready  to  harvest,  a  fungous  disease  known  as  the  "  rust  "  is  likely 
to  cause  the  foliage  to  collapse  and  the  melons  to  ripen  prematurely 
without  a  proper  development  of  netting  or  flavor.  This  disease 
appears  first  as  small,  circular,  brown  spots  on  the  leaves.  The 
spots  gradually  increase  in  size  and  number  until  finally  they  run 
together  and  the  entire  leaf  becomes  brown  and  dead.  The  oldest 
leaves,  at  the  center  of  the  hill,  are  the  first  to  be  attacked,  and 
the  infection  gradually  spreads  outward  until  all  the  foliage  is 
involved  (Fig.  136).  If  the  leaves  die  before  the  melons  ripen, 
the  fruits  do  not  develop  normally  and  are  decidedly  deficient  in 
both  netting  and  flavor. 

Repeated  tests  show  that  the  rust  can  be  controlled  to  some 
extent  by  thorough  and  persistent  spraying  with  Bordeaux  mix- 
ture. A  dilute  mixture  is  used,  consisting  of  two  pounds  of  copper 
sulfate  and  four  pounds  of  lime  to  fifty  gallons  of  water.  Spraying 
should  begin  soon  after  the  vines  have  set  their  earliest  fruits, 
and  should  be  repeated  at  intervals  of  one  week  until  the  harvest 
is  well  under  way.  This  treatment  will  not  prevent  the  appearance 
of  the  rust,  and  in  many  cases  will  not  prevent  even  the  ultimate 
destruction  of  the  foliage,  but  it  retards  the  development  of 
the  disease  and  keeps  the  leaves  green  for  a  longer  time  than 
would  otherwise  be  the  case  (Fig.  137).  This  enables  the 
melons  to  develop  normally  and  acquire  the  requisite  netting 
and  flavor. 

The  cheapest  way  to  do  the  spraying  is  to  train  the  vines 
lengthwise  of  the  row,  as  already  suggested  for  facilitating  late 


230 


THE  VINE  CROPS 


tillage,  and  to  use  a  three-row  sprayer.  For  large  areas,  a  geared- 
power  row-sprayer  may  be  employed  (Fig.  52) .  On  stumpy  ground, 
or  where  the  vines  have  not  been  turned,  a  few  rows  may  be  turned 
to  make  driveways  every  sixty  feet,  and  by  the  use  of  a  long  hose 
a  strip  thirty  feet  wide  can  be  sprayed  on  each  side  of  each  drive- 
way. 


Fig.   136. — A  muskmelon  vine  killed  by  rust. 

Fig.   137. — A  muskmelon  vine  protected  from  rust  by  spraying. 

The   introduction  of  rust-resistant  varieties  of  muskmelons 

within  the  last  few  years  has  made  it  possible  to  avoid  severe 

injury  from  the  rust  without  resorting  to  spraying,  and 
where  these  varieties  are  grown,  spraying  for  the  rust  may 
be  unnecessary. 


WATERMELONS  231 


WATERMELONS 


Watermelons  constitute  one  of  the  most  important  truck 
crops.  They  are  grown  almost  exclusively  on  low-priced  land  at 
a  distance  from  market  and  are  seldom  found  in  market  gardens 
near  cities.  There  are  various  reasons  for  this.  The  value 
of  the  crop  from  an  acre  is  not  sufficient  to  warrant  its  production 
on  high-priced  land,  and  watermelons  will  not  stay  on  the  vines 
until  they  reach  maturity  in  a  densely-populated  district.  Further- 
more, the  soil  and  climate  in  many  localities  are  not  adapted  to 
the  production  of  watermelons.  Profitable  watermelon  culture 
is  confined  almost  exclusively  to  sandy  soil  and  hot  climates.  The 
farther  north  they  are  grown,  the  earlier  the  varieties  that  must 
be  selected  and  the  more  imperative  the  demand  that  the  soil 
be  sandy. 

Soil. — Watermelons  are  usually  grown  on  yellow  sand  ridges 
or  knolls,  where  the  drainage  is  good,  rather  than  on  the  rich, 
darker,  level,  sandy  bottom  lands  between  the  knolls  or  close  to 
river  beds.  Often  the  watermelon  lands  are  in  the  vicinity  of 
rivers  but  are  usually  at  a  considerable  distance  above  the  level 
of  the  water. 

Often  watermelons  are  the  only  truck  crop  grown  in  a  given 
locality.  When  grown  for  shipment  they  are  usually  planted  in 
large  fields  and  grown  in  rotation  with  grain  and  other  farm  crops 
rather  than  with  garden  or  truck  crops.  Experienced  growers 
like  to  plant  watermelons  following  a  crop  of  grass,  clover  or  cow- 
peas,  or  following  the  plowing  under  of  fall-sown  rye  when  it  is  from 
one  to  two  feet  in  height.  Sometimes  land  is  allowed  to  lie  fallow 
and  grow  up  to  weeds  for  a  year  or  two  before  planting  to  melons. 
Land  newly  cleared  of  scrub  pine  or  oak  is  also  considered  de- 
sirable for  watermelons.  In  general  it  is  considered  undesir- 
able to  plant  watermelons  very  frequently  on  the  same  piece 
of  land,  though  this  is  often  done  in  distinctively  watermelon 
localities,  where  a  large  percentage  of  the  tillable  land  is  devoted 
to  this  crop. 

Preparations  for  Planting. — Comparatively  little  labor  is 
required  to  prepare  sandy  land  for  the  planting  of  watermelons. 
Sometimes  it  is  plowed  in  the  fall  and  planted  in  the  spring  without 
replowing.  At  other  times,  merely  a  strip  two  or  three  furrows 
wide  is  plowed  at  planting  time,  where  each  row  is  to  be  placed, 
and  the  intervening  space  plowed  later,  a  furrow  at  a  time,  as  the 


232  THE  VINE  CROPS 

vines  grow.  Sometimes  this  is  done  even  when  the  field  is  occupied 
by  fall-sown  rye.  The  standing  rye  between  the  rows  is  thought 
to  be  a  protection  to  the  young  melon  vines  from  cold  winds. 
Some  growers,  however,  plow  the  whole  area  of  the  field  in  the 
spring  the  same  as  for  planting  any  other  crop.  In  any  case, 
very  little  or  no  harrowing  is  given  the  land  previous  to  planting. 
Of  course  this  applies  only  to  typical  sandy  watermelon  land; 
other  types  of  soil  would  remain  too  lumpy  following  plowing. 
It  must  also  be  remembered  in  this  connection  that  the  water- 
melons will  withstand  extreme  drought,  and  hence  will  thrive 
even  though  precautions  for  the  conservation  of  moisture  are 
largely  neglected.  Such  a  course  could  hardly  be  followed  in  the 
case  of  any  other  cultivated  crop. 

Preparatory  to  planting  the  watermelons,  whether  the  field 
has  previously  been  plowed  or  not,  it  is  customary  to  plow  a 
double  furrow  where  each  row  is  to  stand,  throwing  the  dirt  out 
on  both  sides,  or  to  make  a  deep  furrow  with  a  lister.  Usually 
single  shallow  furrows  are  also  plowed  crossways  of  the  field  to 
mark  the  rows  so  that  the  watermelons  can  be  planted  in  checks. 
The  distance  of  planting  varies  in  different  localities  from  eight 
by  eight  to  ten  by  twelve  feet.    Ten  by  ten  is  a  common  distance. 

After  the  land  is  furrowed  out,  a  quantity  of  rotted  manure, 
varying  from  a  spadeful  to  a  scoop-shovelful,  is  placed  where 
each  hill  of  melons  is  to  stand.  After  the  manure  is  placed,  it  is 
covered  by  plowing  in  one  or  two  furrows  on  each  side  of  the 
furrow  previously  made.  Sometimes  the  ridge  thus  formed  is 
smoothed  down  by  drawing  a  log  or  planker  over  it,  or  a  small 
block  of  wood  drawn  by  one  horse  and  guided  by  handles  may  be 
passed  crossways  over  the  ridges  to  level  them  down  merely  at 
the  points  where  the  melon  hills  are  to  be  placed.  The  seeds  are 
then  planted.  Usually  ten  or  twelve  seeds  are  planted  to  the  hill, 
though  the  vines  are  thinned  down  to  one,  or  at  most  two  in  a 
place,  before  they  commence  to  run. 

Cultivation. — Watermelons  are  usually  cultivated  astride  the 
row  with  a  regular  two-horse  corn  cultivator.  If  the  entire  field 
has  been  plowed  previous  to  planting,  the  space  between  the  rows 
also  is  cultivated  with  the  same  tool,  and  tillage  is  given  in  both 
directions.  If  only  a  narrow  strip  has  been  plowed  for  each  row, 
the  tillage  between  the  rows  consists  principally  in  completing 
the  plowing  of  the  field.  For  the  last  tillage  close  to  the  rows  the 
vines  have  to  be  turned.     In  some  localities,  the  practice  is  to 


SIZE  OF  MELONS 


233 


wad  up  the  vines  of  each  hill  into  a  little  bunch  about  the  size 
of  a  half -bushel  basket  and  cultivate  astride  the  row  the  same  as 
when  the  plants  were  small.  It  is  necessary  to  straighten  out 
the  vines  the  same  day,  or  they  will  grow  into  a  hopeless  tangle. 
Another  common  method  is  to  turn  the  vines  lengthwise  the  row 
and  cultivate  as  close  as  possible  on  each  side.  In  this  case,  care 
is  taken  to  keep  the  vines  and  leaves  right  side  up  when  they  are 
turned,  and  they  are  not  turned  back  following  the  tillage,  but 
allowed  to  branch  out  sidewise  as  growth  continues.  It  is  con- 
sidered unwise  to  turn  watermelon  vines  or  otherwise  disturb  them 
after  the  fruits  have  set.  Therefore  the  last  cultivation  close  to 
the  plants  is  usually  given  just  before  the  melons  begin  to  form. 


Fio.  138. — Kleckley  Sweets  watermelon.     A  favorite  variety  for  home  use. 


In  addition  to  the  cultivation  with  horse  tools,  considerable 
hand  hoeing  is  necessary  in  the  production  of  a  good  crop  of  water- 
melons. Different  growers  hoe  them  about  the  hill  from  three 
to  six  times,  and  it  is  considered  that  there  is  a  fairly  close  relation 
between  the  amount  of  hoeing  and  the  size  of  the  melons  produced. 

Size  of  Melons. — The  size  of  the  melon  also  depends  to  some 
extent  upon  whether  one  or  two  vines  are  grown  per  hill,  and 
whether  or  not  deformed  and  defective  melons  are  cut  off  while 
young,  so  that  the  strength  of  the  vine  will  be  concentrated  on 


234  THE  VINE  CROPS 

those  that  remain.  Since  small  melons  are  not  wanted  in  most 
markets  and  buyers  are  likely  to  reject  specimens  under  eighteen 
pounds  in  weight,  it  is  wise  for  watermelon  growers  to  use  every 
effort  to  produce  large-sized  melons. 

Watermelons  for  Home  Use. — The  above  discussion  refers 
primarily  to  the  groAving  of  watermelons  on  a  commercial  basis. 
For  home  use  they  may  be  grown  on  almost  any  good  soil  where 
the  season  is  sufficiently  long  and  hot  for  the  melons  to  ripen. 
Except  under  favorable  conditions  of  soil,  climate  and  cultural 
methods,  the  melons  are  likely  to  be  small.  This  does  not,  however, 
impair  their  quality  for  home  consumption,  and  the  fact  that  a 
person  is  not  located  upon  a  distinctively  watermelon  soil  should 
not  deter  him  from  growing  a  supply  for  home  use  (Fig.  138). 


Fig.   139. — Citron  or  preserving  melon. 


CITRON    OR    PRESERVING   MELON 


The  citron  closely  resembles  the  watermelon  in  general  appear- 
ance of  vine  and  fruit;  and  the  cultural  methods  are  essentially 
the  same  for  both,  except  that  the  citron  is  somewhat  less 
particular  as  to  soil  than  the  watermelon.  The  flesh  as  well  as  the 
rind  of  the  citron  is  of  much  the  same  consistency  as  the  rind  of 
a  watermelon,  and  is  used  for  making  sweet  pickles  and  preserves. 
It  is  not  edible  in  the  raw  state. 

The  citron  melon  contains  an  unusually  large  percentage  of 
pectin — the  substance  which  must  be  present  in  fruits  to  make 
their  juice  "jell."  It  has  been  discovered  that  the  addition  of 
equal  parts  of  the  pulp  and  juice  of  the  citron  melon  to  fruits 
such  as  peaches,  cherries,  blue  berries  and  others,  which  will  not 


CUCUMBERS  235 

"  jell  "  by  themselves,  causes  them  to  make  perfect  jelly.  This 
makes  a  much  wider  range  of  flavors  possible  to  the  house-wife 
who  takes  particular  pride  in  her  store  of  jelly  for  winter  use  in 
her  own  family,  or  for  the  countrywoman  who  makes  jellies  for 
city  markets  as  a  means  of  earning  spending  money. 

CUCUMBERS 

Cucumbers  are  used  almost  entirely  in  an  immature  state. 
This  makes  it  possible  for  the  crop  to  develop  in  considerably  less 
time  than  is  required  for  muskmelons  or  watermelons,  and  there- 
fore extends  the  northern  limit  of  cucumber  culture  considerably 
beyond  that  of  the  melons.  In  central  latitudes  it  is  possible  to 
produce  a  crop  of  cucumbers  from  outdoor  plantings  made  as  late 
as  July  1. 


Fig.   140. — A  slicing  cucumber. 

Cucumbers  are  grown  for  two  distinct  purposes:  For  slicing 
in  the  fresh  state  (Fig.  140),  and  for  making  pickles.  For  slicing, 
they  are  gathered  after  they  have  attained  full  length  and  have 
filled  out  considerably,  but  before  the  seeds  begin  to  harden. 
For  pickling  they  are  gathered  at  various  stages  of  earlier  develop- 
ment, but  are  especially  desired  when  under  four  inches  in  length. 
The  pickling  of  cucumbers  is  an  important  industry,  and  in  certain 
localities  hundreds  of  acres  are  devoted  to  growing  this  crop  for 
the  factories. 

For  the  production  of  pickle  cucumbers  earliness  is  no  particular 
object,  and  planting  is  usually  deferred  until  at  least  the  fifteenth 
or  twentieth  of  June  in  order  to  escape  the  severest  attacks  of  the 
striped  beetles.  In  the  case  of  slicing  cucumbers,  however,  earli- 
ness is  a  prime  factor,  since  the  crop  is  most  in  demand  early  in 
the  season.    Therefore  the  seeds  are  planted  as  early  as  the  weather 


236 


THE  VINE  CROPS 


will  permit,  and  may  even  be  started  under  glass  by  the  use  of 
dirt  bands,  as  described  under  "  muskmelons  "  (see  p.  225). 

Soil. — Cucumbers  demand  more  moisture  than  any  of  the  other 
vine  crops.  They  also  require  a  soil  rich  in  humus.  Therefore 
they  are  usually  planted  on  low  spots  near  creek  beds  or  in  depres- 
sions between  knolls,  where  the  soil  is  black  and  deep.  For  the 
best  results  with  cucumbers  the  soil  should  be  sufficiently  rich  to 
produce  the  crop  without  the  addition  of  manure  in  the  hills,  though 
heavy  manuring  in  the  hill  is  often  practiced  for  the  early  crop. 

For  the  planting  of  cucumbers,  hills  may  be  prepared  the  same 
as  for  muskmelons,  and  the  crop  planted  at  the  same  distances 
and  tilled  in  the  same  way.  In  rich  market  gardening  soil,  for  a 
crop  of  pickles  the  seed  may  be  sown  with  a  drill,  in  rows  six  to 


Gherkin  vine  and  fruit. 


seven  feet  apart,  and  the  plants  thinned  to  a  foot  apart  in  the  row. 
If  the  vines  are  trained  lengthways  of  the  row  as  suggested  for 
muskmelons,  the  gathering  of  the  pickles  will  be  greatly  facilitated 
and  the  vines  remain  untramped. 


GHERKINS 


Sometimes  extremely  small  pickle  cucumbers  are  called  gher- 
kins. However,  this  name  is  applied  also  to  a  distinct  species 
of  cucumber-like  plant  which  produces  small,  oval,  prickly  fruits 
about  an  inch  long  (Fig.  141).    They  make  exceedingly  fine  pickles 


SQUASHES 


237 


and  are  very  high  priced  and  hard  to  obtain  in  the  market.  They 
are  the  most  easily  grown  of  any  of  the  vine  crops  thus  far  discussed 
and  are  much  surer  of  making  a  crop  than  are  cucumbers,  especially 
in  a  dry  season.  The  chief  objection  to  growing  them  is  the  large 
amount  of  time  required  to  gather  the  crop.  The  fruits  are  so 
small  and  produced  so  continuously  that  the  task  of  pickling  them 
becomes  very  tedious  before  the  season  is  over.  For  home  use,  a 
few  hills  will  furnish  all  that  an  ordinary  family  will  care  to  pick. 


SQUASHES 

Types. — There  are  two  distinct  types  of  squashes,  summer  and 
winter.     The  summer  squashes  are  used  in  an  immature  stage, 


Bush  form  of  summer  squ£ 


before  the  shell  or  seeds  harden.  In  some  varieties  the  flesh  be- 
comes coarse  and  bitter  at  maturity.  The  winter  squashes  are 
allowed  to  reach  full  maturity  unless  overtaken  by  frost,  and  under 
proper  storage  conditions  may  be  kept  until  late  in  the  winter. 
The  summer  varieties  commonly  grown  are  of  bush  form  (Fig.  142), 
while  the  winter  varieties  make  long  trailing  vines.  The  summer 
varieties  are  less  exacting  as  to  soil  and  climate  than  the  winter 
sorts  and  are  the  more  reliable  crop  producers  under  unfavorable 
conditions.     They  will  make  a  crop  in  the  shade  of  a  corn  field 


238 


THE  VINE  CROPS 


and  will  also  endure  the  intense  heat  of  southern  summers.  Winter 
varieties,  on  the  other  hand,  do  not  thrive  in  competition  against 
corn,  and  suffer  severely  from  extreme  heat  or  drought.  The 
summer  varieties  have  hard,  dense  stems  and  vines,  while  those 
of  the  typical  winter  varieties  are  more  fleshy  and  succulent 
(Fig.  143).  The  summer  varieties  are  small  fruited  and  the  winter 
varieties  large  fruited. 

In  addition  to  the  two  common  types  already  mentioned,  there 


143. — Hubbard  squash,  showing  fleshy  stem  tj 


are  also  two  others  that  are  grown  to  some  extent.  One  is  a  small- 
fruited  type  resembling  the  summer  varieties  in  size  of  fruit,  tex- 
ture of  stem,  and  ability  to  withstand  heat  and  drought.  They 
are,  for  the  most  part,  running  rather  than  bush  varieties.  The 
fruit  may  be  used  at  an  immature  stage,  like  summer  squash, 
and  they  are  also  of  good  quality  when  mature.  They  may 
be  kept  for  winter  use  the  same  as  the  large  winter  varieties. 
A  typical  representative  of  this  class  of  squash  is  the  Perfect 
Gem  (Fig.  144) .  Another  type  of  squash  grown  to  a  limited  extent 
in  this  country  is  the  Winter  Crookneck  or  Cushaw.  It  forms 
long,  often  curved,  fruits  of  large  size,  in  which  the  seed  cavity 
is  confined  to  one  end,  while  the  rest  of  the  squash  is  a  neck,  three 
to  five  inches  in  diameter,  which  consists  of  solid  flesh  (Fig.  145). 

In  England  the  vegetable  marrow  is  used  the  same  as  summer 
squash  is  in  America.     It  forms  a  running  vine,  and  is  handled 


SQUASHES 


239 


Fig.    144. — Perfect  Gem  squash,  showing  small,  hard  stem. 


Fig.  145. — Section  of  winter  crookneck  squash,  showing  the  solid  flesh  of  the  "neck.' 


240 


THE  VINE  CROPS 


the  same  as  other  squashes.    It  is  grown  to  a  very  limited  extent 
in  this  country  (Fig.  146). 

Squashes  in  general  are  grown  much  less  in  America  than  their 
importance  as  a  food  would  seem  to  warrant.  Markets  that 
handle  hundreds  of  carloads  of  watermelons  during  a  season  are 
easily  overstocked  with  a  few  carloads  of  winter  squashes. 


Fio.   146. — Vegetable 


a  favorite  in  England. 


Culture. — Squashes  thrive  best  in  soil  containing  considerable1 
humus.  Manure  applied  broadcast  and  also  in  the  hill  contributes 
greatly  to  the  production  of  a  good  crop.  The  method  of  preparing 
a  field  for  planting  is  much  the  same  as  for  other  vine  crops.  The 
entire  area  should  be  plowed  and  pulverized  before  the  hills  are 
made.    For  bush  varieties  the  hills  may  be  four  by  four  feet;  for 


PUMPKINS 


241 


running  sorts  they  should  be  from  eight  by  eight  to  ten  by  twelve, 
depending  upon  the  vigor  of  the  particular  variety  and  the  type 
of  soil.  Usually  the  seed  is  planted  in  the  open  ground,  but  occa- 
sionally the  summer  varieties  are  started  in  hotbeds  and  trans- 
planted to  secure  an  early  crop.  The  same  precautions  must  be 
taken  as  in  transplanting  muskmelons  and  cucumbers.  Two  to 
three  plants  should  be  allowed  in  each  hill.  The  tillage  and  general 
care  of  the  crop  are  the  same  as  for  the  other  vine  crops.     The 


Fig.   147. — One  type  of  "pie"  pumpkin:     of  small  size,  but  high  quality. 

running  varieties  make  a  rampant  growth  and  no  amount  of 
training  will  keep  them  within  prescribed  limits.  For  this  reason 
they  should  never  be  planted  close  to  small  vegetables  that  occupy 
the  land  late  in  the  season. 


PUMPKINS 


Pumpkins  are  of  three  principal  types:    "  Mammoth,"  grown 
mainly   for   exhibition   purposes;    "  field,"    grown   especially   for 
stock  feeding;  and  "  pie,"  produced  principally  for  the  making  of 
16 


242  THE  VINE  CROPS 

pumpkin  pies.  Almost  any  variety  of  pumpkin  may  be  used  for 
making  pies,  but  some  sorts  are  especially  adapted  to  this  purpose 
(Fig.  147).  They  are  finer  grained  and  sweeter  than  the  other 
sorts.  They  may  be  stored  for  the  winter  supply  of  pies,  or  the 
flesh  may  be  canned  for  the  making  of  pies  at  any  time  of  the  year. 
Field  pumpkins  are  often  grown  as  an  incidental  crop  in  corn 
fields.  They  are  like  the  summer  squash  in  being  able  to  endure 
the  shade  and  also  the  competition  against  the  corn.  However, 
pumpkins  are  much  more  likely  to  produce  large  crops  if  they  are 
relieved  of  such  competition  and  given  a  piece  of  land  to  them- 
selves. In  this  case  they  are  planted  and  cared  for  much  the  same 
as  winter  squashes.  However,  on  rich  land  it  is  not  necessary 
to  apply  manure  in  the  hills  unless  extra  large  specimens  are 
desired. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  plants  belong  to  the  group  known  as  vine  crops? 

2.  What  common  characteristics  have  the  vine  crops? 

3.  What  insect  enemy  is  common  to  all  the  vine  crops? 

4.  Discuss  means  of  controlling  the  striped  cucumber  beetle. 

5.  How  does  the  melon  aphis  affect  the  melon  crop? 

6.  What  different  ways  have  been  suggested  for  the  control  of  the  melon 

aphis,  or  louse?    Which  way  is  the  most  effective? 

7.  What  different  types  of  muskmelons  are  recognized  on  the  market? 

8.  Describe  an  ideal  site  for  growing  muskmelons. 

9.  Discuss  the  fertilizing  of  muskmelons. 

10.  When  should  muskmelons  be  planted. 

11.  Describe  the  preparation  of  a  field  for  planting  melons,  including  the 

making  of  the  hills. 

12.  Describe  the  actual  process  of  planting  the  melon  seed. 

13.  Describe  the  method  of  poisoning  field  mice  to  protect   newly-planted 

melon  seed. 

14.  How  many  muskmelon  vines  should  there  be  in  a  hill?    How  and  when 

are  the  surplus  vines  removed? 

15.  What  are  the  advantages  of  transplanting  muskmelons? 

16.  Describe  the  method  of  growing  melon  plants  for  transplanting. 

17.  At  what  age  are  melon  plants  transplanted? 

18.  Describe  the  process  of  transplanting  the  melon  plants  from  the  hotbed 

to  the  field. 

19.  Describe  the  tillage  of  a  commercial  plantation  of  muskmelons. 

20.  How  does  excessive  moisture  affect  muskmelons? 

21.  Will  muskmelons  withstand  extreme  drought? 

22.  What  is  the  effect  of  melon  "rust"  on  the  quality  of  muskmelons? 

23.  How  may  melon  rust  be  controlled? 

24.  What  sort  of  a  spraying  outfit  can  be  used  in  a  melon  field? 

25.  What  is  meant  by  a  "rust-resistant  variety"  of  muskmelon? 

26.  Under  what  conditions  of  soil  and  climate  do  watermelons  thrive? 

27.  Describe  the  preparation  of  land  for  the  planting  of  watermelons. 


QUESTIONS  243 

28.  Describe  the  tillage  of  watermelons,  especially  the  last  tillage  of  the 

season. 

29.  What  size  of  watermelon  is  most  in  demand  on  the  market? 

30.  Can  watermelons  for  home  use  be  satisfactorily  grown  on  other  than 

sandy  soil? 

31.  How  may  the  citron  or  preserving  melon  be  grown? 

32.  Why  can  cucumbers  be  grown  in  a  shorter  time  than  melons? 

33.  For  what  two  uses  are  cucumbers  grown? 

34.  At  what  stage  of  development  are  cucumbers  gathered  for  slicing?    For 

pickling? 

35.  When  should  cucumbers  be  planted? 

36.  Describe  two  ways  of  planting  cucumbers. 

37.  What  are  gherkins  and  how  are  they  grown? 

38.  What  are  the  two  common  types  or  classes  of  squashes? 

39.  In  what  respects  do  these  two  classes  of  squashes  differ? 

40.  What  other  types  of  squashes  are  grown  to  a  limited  extent? 

41.  How  far  apart  should  squashes  be  planted? 

42.  What  are  the  three  principal  types  of  pumpkins? 

43.  How  do  "pie"  pumpkins  differ  from  the  other  types? 

44.  Under  what  conditions  may  pumpkins  be  made  to  produce  a  maximum 

crop? 

45.  What  vine  crops  are  grown  for  market  near  you?     Which  ones  seem  to 

pay  best?    Why? 


CHAPTER  XXVI 
WARM  SEASON  CROPS  THAT  REQUIRE  TRANSPLANTING 

The  plants  in  this  group  include  two  of  the  most  important 
vegetable  crops  (tomatoes  and  sweet  potatoes)  and  two  others 
of  considerable  importance  (peppers  and  eggplants).  All  demand 
high  temperature  for  their  best  development  and  have  too  long 
a  period  of  growth  to  produce  a  full  crop  before  frost  unless  the 
plants  are  started  under  glass  before  the  weather  is  warm  enough 
for  their  outdoor  planting  in  central  and  northern  latitudes. 

tomatoes  * 

Tomatoes  are  extensively  grown  throughout  the  United 
States.  No  home  garden  or  market  garden  is  complete  without 
them.  They  constitute  one  of  the  most  important  truck  crops 
of  the  South  for  shipment  to  northern  markets,  and  are  extensively 
grown  for  canning  factories.  While  primarily  a  long  season  crop 
adapted  to  southern  climates  and  normally  continuing  growth 
until  killed  by  frost,  it  is  possible,  by  the  selection  of  early  varieties 
and  by  starting  the  plants  early  under  glass,  to  grow  tomatoes 
even  in  the  extreme  northern  states,  though  the  crops  may  be  cut 
short  by  early  frosts. 

Growing  the  Plants. — Whether  grown  for  home  use,  local 
market,  or  shipment  to  distant  markets,  it  is  desirable  that  toma- 
toes commence  ripening  their  fruit  early  in  the  season  and  that 
the  crop  be  large.  The  first  essential  in  the  production  of  an  early 
crop  and  large  yield  is  the  securing  of  large,  well-grown  plants 
at  the  proper  time  for  transplanting.  To  this  end,  the  seeds  are 
sown  in  flats  in  a  greenhouse  or  in  a  hotbed,  eight  to  twelve  weeks 
before  the  plants  are  needed.  As  soon  as  the  seedlings  have  made 
their  first  pair  of  rough  leaves  and  before  they  become  spindling, 
they  should  be  transplanted  to  other  flats  or  hotbeds,  being  placed 
about  three  inches  apart  each  way;  or  they  may  be  placed  in  two- 
and-one-half-inch  pots.  After  growing  here  for  two  or  three  weeks, 
they  should  be  shifted  to  a  coldframe,  in  which  they  are  placed 
six  inches  apart;  or  if  previously  placed  in  small  pots  they  may  be 

*  Adapted  from  a  paper  presented  by  the  author  at  the  Fiftieth  Annual 
Meeting  of  the  Illinois  State  Horticultural  Society,  December  14,  1905. 
244 


TOMATOES  245 

shifted  to  four-inch  pots,  which  are  then  plunged  to  the  rim  in  the 
soil  of  the  coldframe.  Here  they  develop  large  root  systems,  and 
strong,  stocky  tops  that  will  stand  erect  when  the  plants  are 
placed  in  the  field  (Fig.  23). 

As  the  time  for  transplanting  approaches,  the  plants  should 
be  gradually  hardened-off,  so  that  they  will  be  making  a  slow, 
hard  growth  rather  than  a  rampant,  sappy  growth,  at  the  time 
they  are  placed  in  the  open.  If  handled  in  this  way,  the  plants 
start  growth  more  quickly  in  the  field,  and  very  few  are  lost  by 
reason  of  the  changed  conditions. 

Transplanting. — In  removing  the  plants  from  the  coldframe, 
if  pots  have  not  been  used,  it  is  customary  to  cut  the  soil  in  squares, 
with  a  plant  in  the  center  of  each  square,  and  then  carefully  lift 
the  blocks  of  soil  by  means  of  a  spade,  and  place  them  on  a  low 
wagon  for  transporting  to  the  field.  Here  they  are  again  lifted 
with  the  spade  (Fig.  148),  and  placed  in  holes  previously  prepared, 
as  described  below.  The  earth  is  filled  in  about  the  plants  by  means 
of  a  hoe. 

The  preparation  of  a  field  for  tomatoes  does  not  differ  materi- 
ally from  its  preparation  for  corn  or  other  field  crops,  except  that 
after  being  plowed  and  pulverized  it  is  furrowed  out  for  the 
reception  of  the  plants.  The  furrows  are  usually  from  four  to 
five  feet  apart  each  way,  the  latter  distance  being  preferable 
except  for  dwarf  varieties.  Except  in  the  case  of  rich  soils,  it  is 
also  customary  to  apply  fertilizer  or  manure  to  the  hills.  After 
the  land  has  been  furrowed  out  both  ways,  the  loose  soil  is  scooped 
from  the  intersections  by  means  of  a  hoe,  making  for  each  plant 
a  hole  about  one  foot  across.  In  this,  a  handful  of  fertilizer  is 
scattered  just  before  the  setting  of  the  plant.  A  mixture  of  steamed 
bone,  dried  blood  and  potassium  sulfate,  used  at  the  rate  of  one- 
fourth  pound  per  plant,  is  a  good  fertilizer  for  tomatoes.  Some- 
times manure  is  used  in  the  hills,  but  more  often  it  is  applied  broad- 
cast when  used  at  all.  Sometimes  tomato  fields  are  manured 
broadcast  and  fertilized  in  the  hill.  However,  on  rich  soils  it  is 
not  necessary  to  fertilize  in  the  hills,  and  good  crops  can  often  be 
grown  without  manuring  or  fertilizing  of  any  kind. 

The  time  of  transplanting  varies  somewhat  with  the  season, 
but  in  general  it  may  be  said  to  follow  closely  upon  the  time  of 
planting  early  corn.  The  earlier  it  can  be  done  without  running 
serious  risk  of  losing  the  plants  by  frost,  the  earlier  the  crop  is 
likely  to  be. 


246 


CROPS  THAT  REQUIRE  TRANSPLANTING 


Cultivation  should  begin  as  soon  as  the  plants  are  set.  The 
early  tillage  should  be  deep  and  close  to  the  plants,  but  the  later 
tillage  should  be  more  shallow  in  order  to  avoid  injury  to  the  roots. 
The  later  the  cultivation  can  be  continued,  the  longer  the  picking 
season  is  likely  to  last,  except  in  seasons  of  abundant  and  well- 
distributed  rainfall.  Some  hand  work  close  about  the  plants 
early  in  the  season  will  aid  in  giving  them  a  good  start,  but  if  the 
plants  are  set  so  as  to  be  cultivated  both  ways,  little  hand  work  is 
really  necessary. 

Staking. — In  some  localities  it  is  customary  to  support  the 
plants  by  means  of  stakes.     A  stout  oak  stake  five  feet  long  is 


1 


a«*iV<K 


Fia.    148. — Transplanting  tomatoes,  Union  County,  Illinois. 

driven  beside  each  plant.  When  the  plant  has  reached  a  height 
of  fifteen  or  eighteen  inches,  it  is  tied  to  the  stake  by  means  of 
soft,  stout  twine.  The  twine  is  first  tied  tightly  about  the  stake 
so  that  it  will  not  slip;  then  it  is  tied  loosely  about  the  plant  so 
as  not  to  bind  and  injure  the  stems  as  the  plant  increases  in  size. 
When  the  plant  has  grown  a  foot  or  so  more,  it  is  again  tied; 
and  a  third  tying  is  usually  necessary  when  the  plant  has  reached 
nearly  to  the  top  of  the  stake.  Sometimes  a  fourth  tying  is  made 
in  the  case  of  strong-growing  varieties. 

Many  other  methods  of  supporting  tomato  vines  have  been 
employed  from  time  to  time,  but  tying  to  a  single  stake,  as  above 


STAKING 


247 


outlined,  is  the  method  employed  by  extensive  commercial  growers 
in  certain  localities  where  tomato  culture  is  an  important  industry. 
It  is  the  simplest  and  most  satisfactory  method  yet  devised  that 
is  applicable  to  large  area  operations. 

The  advantages  of  staking  and  tying  tomatoes  instead  of  allow- 
ing them  to  spread  over  the  ground  are  that  in  a  cool  season  the 
fruits  ripen  more  readily;  in  a  wet  season  they  are  less  subject  to 
rot;  and  in  a  dry  season  the  plants  can  be  kept  thrifty  and  produc- 
tive by  continuous  cultivation,  long  after  untrained  plants  have 
ceased  to  bear  (Fig.  149).    In  any  season  fruits  which  lie  in  contact 


Fig.   149. — A  row  of  staked  tomatoes. 


with  the  ground,  as  is  the  case  with  many  fruits  on  untrained 
plants,  are  more  or  less  blemished  by  rough  places  on  the  skin. 
However,  the  staking  and  tying  involve  considerable  expense, 
and  many  growers  prefer  the  other  method,  even  though  the  crop 
is  less  certain  in  an  unfavorable  season. 

The  pruning  of  tomatoes  to  single  stems  (Fig.  150)  is  claimed 
to  hasten  maturity,  but  it  greatly  reduces  the  yield. 

When  tomatoes  are  grown  for  canning  purposes,  earliness  is 
not  essential;  and  since  the  crop  is  usually  contracted  at  a  low 
price,  cheap  methods  of  culture  must  be  practiced.     The  plants 


248 


CROPS  THAT  REQUIRE  TRANSPLANTING 


are  started  rather  late  in  a  hotbed  or  a  coldframe,  from  which  they 
are  transplanted  directly  to  the  field  while  still  quite  small,  usually 
being  set  with  a  dibber,  spade  or  transplanting  machine.  They  are 
cultivated  entirely  by  machinery,  and  are  never  staked  or  tied. 

Picking. — The  method  of  picking  and  handling  a  crop  of  toma- 
toes depends  upon  the  purpose  for  which  it  is  grown.    If  intended 

for  home  use,  local  market  or 
canning,  the  fruits  are  allowed 
to  fully  mature  upon  the  vines; 
if  for  distant  shipment,  they  are 
picked  as  soon  as  they  begin  to 
color. 

Care  should  be  taken  in  the 
picking  and  handling  of  toma- 
toes to  avoid  bruising  or  other- 
wise injuring  the  fruits.  If  the 
stems  are  not  removed  at  the 
time  of  picking  they  are  likely  to 
puncture  the  riper  specimens. 
Adaptation  of  Varieties. — 
There  are  many  varieties  of 
tomatoes,  and  the  purpose  for 
which  the  crop  is  to  be  grown 
will  be  an  important  factor  in 
determining  which  variety  it  is 
best  to  plant.  Personal  prefer- 
ence serves  as  the  chief  guide  in 
the  selection  of  a  variety  for 
home  use.  It  matters  not 
whether  the  variety  is  large 
or  small,  wrinkled  or  smooth, 
red,  purple  or  yellow,  so  long  as 
it  satisfies  the  personal  tastes 
of  the  grower.  In  the  local 
markets  there  is  usually  not 
much  discrimination  in  favor  of  particular  varieties.  However, 
in  a  large  city  market,  certain  kinds  sell  much  better  than  others, 
and  the  kind  should  be  grown  which  sells  best  in  the  particular 
market  that  is  to  be  supplied.  For  canning  purposes,  a  large, 
smooth,  heavy-meated,  bright  red  tomato  is  preferred,  and  some 
factories  specify  particular  varieties  in  their  contracts. 


:50. — Tomato  plant  pruned  to  a  single 
stem,  and  supported  by  a  stake. 


DISEASES  OF  TOMATOES 


249 


Diseases  of  Tomatoes.  Leaf  Spot. — One  of  the  most  prevalent 
and  widely  distributed  diseases  of  the  tomato  is  the  leaf  spot, 
sometimes  called  the  "  rust."  The  presence  of  this  disease  is 
indicated  by  the  appearance  of  small,  circular,  brown  spots  on  the 
lower  leaves.  The  infection  gradually  progresses  upward  on  the 
plant,  the  leaves  dying  in  the  order  of  their  infection  as  the  season 
advances  (Fig.  151).    In  the  case  of  a  severe  attack  the  vines  are 


*. 


"&''' 

i^W 


Fig.  151. — Unsprayed  tomato  plant,  badly- 
affected  by  leaf  spot.    Lower  leaves  dead. 


Fig.   152. — Sprayed  tomato  plant.     The  leaf 
spot  has  been  effectively  controlled. 


so  weakened  that  their  later  fruits  fail  to  develop  properly.  On 
untrained  vines,  the  death  of  the  lower  leaves  so  exposes  the  fruits 
that  they  are  likely  to  sunscald.  This  disease  can  be  readily  con- 
trolled by  spraying  with  Bordeaux  mixture  (Fig.  152).  Applica- 
tions should  be  made  at  intervals  of  two  weeks,  beginning  as 
soon  as  the  plants  are  set  in  the  field  and  continuing  until  the 
close  of  the  picking  season. 


250  CROPS  THAT  REQUIRE  TRANSPLANTING 

Wilt. — Another  disease  of  the  tomato  is  the  fusarium  wilt. 
This  cannot  be  controlled  by  spraying,  for  it  lives  over  winter  in 
the  soil  and  infects  the  plants  through  the  roots.  The  first  evi- 
dence of  its  presence  is  the  sudden  wilting  and  dying  of  the  entire 
plant  or  of  one  or  more  of  its  branches.  Cross-sections  of  the 
wilted  stems  show  a  discolored,  brownish  appearance  of  the  woody 
portion,  and  microscopic  examination  of  the  discolored  tissue 
reveals  the  presence  of  a  fungus.  The  plants  may  die  before  any 
fruit  has  matured,  or  at  any  time  during  the  normal  fruiting 
season  (Fig.  153). 


Fig.   153. — Tomato  plantation  completely  ruined  by  fusarium  wilt. 

The  first  season  that  the  wilt  appears  in  a  given  field,  usually 
only  a  few  plants  are  infected;  but  if  the  same  field  is  used  for 
tomatoes  the  next  year,  the  attack  is  likely  to  be  very  severe. 
It  is  therefore  advisable  to  practice  rotation  of  crops  to  avoid 
severe  infection  of  the  land  if  possible.  Soil  for  the  hotbeds  and 
cold  frames  in  which  the  plants  are  grown  should  be  secured 
from  a  field  which  has  never  grown  tomatoes  nor  received  the 
wash  from  tomato  fields.  In  badly  infected  regions,  only  wilt- 
resistant  strains  of  tomatoes  should  be  planted.    There  are  now 


EGGPLANT  251 

several  such  strains  but  they  are  not  yet  very  extensively 
handled  by  the  seed  trade,  most  of  the  seed  still  being  in  the 
hands  of  experiment  station  workers. 

EGGPLANT 

The  eggplant  is  an  exacting  crop,  demanding  careful  attention 
to  all  details  if  satisfactory  results  are  to  be  secured.  The  plants 
must  be  kept  healthy  and  growing  vigorously  all  the  time.  A  check 
in  growth  at  any  time  during  their  life  is  seldom  fully  overcome, 
and  may  result  in  the  complete  failure  of  the  crop.  The  essential 
requirements  of  eggplant  culture  are  high  temperature,  rich  soil, 
thorough  tillage,  and  protection  from  insects  (Figs.  154  and  155). 

Since  the  outdoor  conditions  in  central  latitudes  are  too  cold  for 
eggplants  until  about  the  first  of  June,  the  plants  must  be  started 
under  glass ;  and  since  the  plants  must  be  well  grown  at  the  time  of 
transplanting,  the  seed  should  be  sown  about  the  middle  of  March. 

Growing  the  Plants. — If  a  greenhouse  is  available,  that  is  the 
best  place  in  which  to  grow  the  plants;  otherwise,  a  hotbed  will 
do.  In  either  case,  the  temperature  should  be  about  80°  to  85°  F. 
during  the  day  and  65°  to  70°  at  night.  As  soon  as  the  plants 
are  large  enough  to  handle,  which  will  be  from  three  to  four  weeks 
after  the  seed  is  sown,  they  should  be  removed  from  the  seed-bed 
and  potted  off  into  two-and-one-half-inch  pots,  and  replaced  in 
the  hotbed  or  greenhouse.  Very  rich  soil  should  be  used  in  the 
pots.  As  soon  as  the  roots  fill  these  pots,  the  plants  should  be 
shifted  to  four-inch  pots.  If  the  roots  fill  these  pots  before  the 
weather  is  warm  enough  to  warrant  transplanting  into  the  field, 
the  plants  should  be  shifted  again,  this  time  to  six-inch  pots.  The 
plants  must  be  afforded  the  protection  of  the  hotbed  or  green- 
house until  the  weather  becomes  warm  and  settled,  even  if  it  be 
until  the  middle  of  June;  and  during  this  time  they  must  not  be 
allowed  to  become  pot-bound,  for  that  would  check  their  growth. 

Transplanting. — When  conditions  are  favorable  for  transplant- 
ing to  the  field,  the  plants  should  be  slipped  from  the  pots  without 
disturbing  the  roots,  and  carefully  planted  in  rich,  thoroughly 
prepared  soil  that  has  been  kept  moist  by  repeated  harrowing 
following  early  plowing.  The  rows  should  be  placed  four  feet  apart 
and  the  plants  two  to  three  feet  apart  in  the  row. 

Cultural  Requirements. — Eggplants  thrive  best  in  hot  weather, 
and  although  they  need  considerable  moisture  immediately  fol- 
lowing transplanting,  after  they  have  once  become  well  established 


252     CROPS  THAT  REQUIRE  TRANSPLANTING 


Fig.  154. — Fruit  of  the  eggplant:  Large  type  at  left;  small,  extra  early  type  at  right. 

Fig.  155. — Cross-sections  of  fruits  shown  in  Fig.   154,  showing  distribution  of  seeds 

and  character  of  interior. 


PEPPERS  253 

they  will  endure  a  reasonable  degree  of  drought,  provided 
they  are  growing  in  rich  soil  well  supplied  with  humus  and  are 
given  frequent  and  thorough  tillage. 

Protection  from  Insects. — From  the  time  the  plants  are  placed 
in  the  field  until  they  are  killed  by  the  frosts  of  autumn  they  are 
subject  to  repeated  attacks  by  small  black  flea  beetles  which  eat 
little  round  holes  through  the  leaves.  They  are  also  attacked  by 
Colorado  potato  beetles,  especially  the  adult  form.  Sometimes 
these  beetles  simply  cut  the  midrib  of  the  leaf  as  if  bent  on  wanton 
destruction,  and  thus  do  much  more  damage  than  would  be  indi- 
cated by  the  amount  of  foliage  they  devour.  The  attacks  of  either 
of  these  insects  result  in  a  weakening  of  the  plant,  which  may 
lead  to  a  partial  or  complete  failure  of  the  crop.  It  is  therefore 
essential  that  particular  care  be  taken  to  prevent  a  serious  attack. 
For  this  purpose  repeated  applications  of  Bordeaux  mixture  and 
arsenate  of  lead  should  be  made  as  often  as  necessary.  Sometimes 
seven  to  ten  applications  are  made  during  the  season. 


Peppers  demand  about  the  same  temperature  and  care  as 
tomatoes,  though  the  plants  grow  more  slowly,  and  must  be 
started  under  glass  a  week  or  ten  days  earlier  than  tomatoes  in 
order  to  reach  transplanting  size  at  the  same  time.  For  an  early 
crop  the  seeds  are  sown  in  flats  in  a  greenhouse,  and  the  seedlings 
shifted  to  two-and-one-half-inch,  and  later  to  four-inch  pots. 
Following  the  last  shift  the  pots  are  plunged  to  the  rim  in  the 
soil  of  a  coldframe,  where  the  plants  are  hardened-off  preparatory 
to  transplanting  to  the  field.  For  a  late  crop,  the  seed  may  be 
sown  directly  in  the  soil  of  a  hotbed  and  the  plants  transplanted 
to  the  field  without  any  preliminary  shifting  or  the  use  of  pots. 
However,  except  in  southern  localities,  a  crop  started  at  all  late 
is  likely  to  be  cut  short  by  autumn  frosts. 

In  transplanting  peppers  to  the  field  the  rows  should  be  placed 
far  enough  apart  to  admit  tillage  with  a  horse — say  three 
and  one-half  feet — and  the  plants  should  be  about  two  feet  apart 
in  the  row.  Ordinary  good  tillage  is  all  that  is  required.  The  pepper 
is  not  usually  subject  to  attack  by  any  insects  or  diseases;  protec- 
tion from  enemies  is  therefore  seldom  necessary.  The  crop  is  an 
easy  one  to  grow,  provided  the  plants  are  started  sufficiently  early. 

There  are  two  general  types  of  peppers,  large  and  small  fruited. 
The  former  (Fig.  156)  are  normally  much  milder  in  flavor  than 


254 


CROPS  THAT  REQUIRE  TRANSPLANTING 


the  latter,  and  are  used  for  salads,  "stuffed  peppers,"  and  mixed 
pickles.  The  small-fruited  sorts  are  for  the  most  part  exceedingly 
pungent,  and  are  most  in  demand  for  flavoring  pickles  or  making 
pepper  sauce.  Both  types  may  be  used  fresh  in  either  the  green  or 
ripe  state.  Ripe  peppers  may  be  dried  or  canned  for  winter  use. 
Pimento  cheese  is  flavored  with  canned  peppers.  An  especially 
thick-meated  variety  is  grown  for  canning. 

SWEET   POTATOES 

Sweet  potatoes  belong  naturally  to  warm  climates.  They 
constitute  a  very  important  crop  in  the  South  and  are  grown  to 
a  considerable  extent  in  certain  localities  in  central  latitudes, 


Fig.  156. — Several  varieties  of  large  peppers. 

especially  where  the  soil  is  sandy.  The  farther  north  they  are 
grown  the  greater  the  precautions  necessary  to  insure  sufficient 
warmth  and  dryness  of  soil  to  promote  their  proper  development. 
Warm,  well-drained  soil  and  a  southern  exposure  are  selected. 
The  land  is  thrown  up  in  ridges  to  further  facilitate  surface  drain- 
age and  insure  greater  warmth  (Fig.  157).  Planting  in  the  field 
is  deferred  until  the  weather  is  warm,  even  if  that  is  after  the  first 
of  June.  The  sweet  potato  delights  in  hot,  dry  weather,  and  after 
the  plants  are  once  fully  established,  very  little  rainfall  is  necessary 
to  produce  a  good  crop.  In  wet  seasons  or  in  poorly-drained  soil, 
the  tubers  are  likely  to  be  long  and  stringy  instead  of  short  and 
plump,  as  is  desired. 


SWEET  POTATOES 


255 


Propagation. — The  usual  way  of  propagating  sweet  potatoes  is 
to  place  a  single  layer  of  medium-sized  tubers  in  a  hotbed,  and  cover 
them  with  four  or  five  inches  of  soil  or  sand.  The  tubers  are  placed 
about  half  an  inch  apart,  so  that  if  rot  starts  it  cannot  readily 
spread  from  one  tuber  to  another.  This  bedding  of  the  seed 
tubers  is  done  from  four  to  six  weeks  before  the  plants  are  wanted 
for  setting  in  the  field.  From  three  to  five  bushels  of  seed  tubers 
are  bedded  for  each  acre  to  be  planted.  The  hotbed  is  cared  for 
in  the  usual  manner  as  to  watering  and  ventilating. 

A  large  number  of  sweet  potato  plants,  called  "  slips  "  or 
"  draws,"  develop  from  each  tuber.  When  these  have  attained 
a  height  of  from  four  to  eight  inches  above  the  surface  of  the  bed, 
and  the  season  for  planting  has  arrived,  they  are  carefully  pulled 


*25? 


■m&& 


Fig.  157. — A  few  rows  of  sweet  potatoes  grown  for  home  use.     Each  row  is  on  a  ridge. 

in  such  a  manner  as  to  avoid  disturbing  the  tubers;  for  if  left 
undisturbed  the  tubers  will  continue  to  produce  plants,  which 
may  be  used  for  replanting  if  necessary  or  for  planting  additional 
fields. 

Planting. — The  land  for  planting  sweet  potatoes  should  be 
plowed  early  and  worked  repeatedly  so  as  to  have  it  in  good 
friable  condition  when  the  planting  is  to  be  done.  Just  before 
planting,  the  ground  should  be  compacted  by  rolling,  then  thrown 
up  into  narrow  ridges  about  three  feet  apart,  by  means  of  a  plow 
ora"  sweep  "  (Fig.  158).  These  ridges  are  then  smoothed  and 
somewhat  compacted  by  means  of  a  home-made  tool  designed 
especially  for  the  purpose  (Fig.   159).     The  plants  are  usually 


256 


CROPS  THAT  REQUIRE  TRANSPLANTING 


set  with  a  spade  and  are  placed  about  sixteen  inches  apart  in  the 
row.  A  man  thrusts  the  spade  into  the  soft  earth  of  the  ridge 
and  moves  the  handle  slightly  forward,  so  that  a  wedge-shaped 
opening  is  made.  Into  this  opening  a  boy  thrusts  a  plant,  and 
holds  it  in  place  until  the  spade  is  withdrawn  and  the  soil  rolls 
back  against  the  plant.  As  the  man  steps  forward  to  make  the 
next  hole  he  places  his  foot  close  to  the  plant  already  set,  and 
thus  firms  the  soil  against  the  roots.  In  this  way  the  work  pro- 
gresses very  rapidly. 

Cultivation. — Special  tools  are  used  in  cultivating  sweet  pota- 
toes, so  that  the  ridges  are  retained  intact  through  the  season. 
The  principal  tools  are  the  "  sweep  "  and  "  bull  tongue,"  in  addi- 
tion to  the  one-horse  turning  plow,  which  is  used  at  times  to 


Fio.    158. — "Sweep"  used  in  making 
sweet  potato  ridges. 


Fig.   159. — Home-made  device  for  smoothing 
sweet  potato  ridges. 


"  bar-off  "  both  sides  of  the  ridge  if  crab  grass  threatens  to  gain 
a  foothold.  .  In  addition  to  the  horse  tillage,  considerable  hand 
hoeing  close  to  the  plants  is  necessary,  for  the  ridges  are  scraped 
clean  of  all  grass  and  weeds  at  frequent  intervals.  Cultivation 
is  continued  until  the  vines  nearly  cover  the  ground  between, 
as  well  as  on,  the  ridges.  The  crop  is  then  laid-by  and  allowed 
to  remain  undisturbed  until  time  for  digging. 

Harvesting. — Sweet  potatoes  should  be  dug  before  the  vines 
are  injured  by  frost.  Special  diggers  are  often  used  for  the  purpose 
where  large  areas  are  to  be  dug.  These  are  equipped  with  two 
rolling  coulters  to  cut  the  vines,  two  plowshares  to  cut  away  both 
sides  of  the  ridge,  and  a  U-shaped  piece  of  steel  that  runs  under 
the  ridge  and  loosens  up  the  tubers  (Fig.  160).  After  this  machine 
has  passed  along  the  row,  the  tubers  are  pulled  out  by  grasping 


HARVESTING 


257 


the  stem  of  each  plant  in  the  hand.  All  the  tubers  cling  to  the 
stem  so  that  an  entire  hill  can  be  pulled  at  one  time  (Fig.  161). 
The  tubers  are  allowed  to  lie  upon  the  ground  and  dry  for  a  few 


Fig.   160. — Sweet  potato  digger.     When  equipped   ready  for  use  the 
digger  carries   two  rolling  coulters  to  cut  the  vines. 


Fig.   161. — Sweet  potato  tubers  cling  to  the  stem. 


hours  before  they  are  hauled  from  the  field.     When  sufficiently 
dry  they  are  removed  from  the  stems  and  placed  carefully  in  slatted 
boxes.    Usually  the  tubers  are  sorted  as  they  are  placed  in  the 
17 


258 


CROPS  THAT  REQUIRE  TRANSPLANTING 


boxes,  the  largest  size  being  designed  for  market  or  table  use,  the 
next  size  for  seed,  and  the  "  strings  "  for  stock  feed.  In  all  hand- 
ling of  sweet  potatoes,  extreme  care  must  be  taken  to  avoid  bruising 
the  tubers. 

In  the  absence  of  special  digging  machinery,  the  sweet  potatoes 
can  be  loosened  up  with  a  plow  from  which  the  mould-board  has 
been  removed  (Fig.  162),  then  pulled  out  by  hand  as  already  indi- 
cated.   Small  areas  in  the  garden  may  be  dug  with  a  fork. 

Types. — There   are   three   general   types   of   sweet   potatoes: 


Fio.   162. — Plow  rigged  for  digging  sweet  potatoes. 


Yellow,  red,  and  white.  The  yellow  sorts  with  dry  flesh  are  pre- 
ferred on  the  northern  markets.  Yellow  and  white  sorts  with 
moister  flesh  are  great  favorites  for  table  use  in  the  South.  The 
red  varieties  are  coarser  and  usually  less  desirable  than  either 
the  yellow  or  the  white,  but  are  grown  in  some  places  because 
they  are  less  particular  as  to  soil  than  the  other  sorts,  and  are 
usually  very  productive. 

The  Gulf  States  have  been  heavy  producers  of  sweet  potatoes 
for  local  consumption,  but  until  very  recently  the  markets  of  the 
north  have  been  supplied  principally  with  the  product  from  New 
Jersey  and  Virginia,  with  smaller  shipments  from  Maryland, 
Delaware,  Illinois  and  other  inland  states.  The  construction  of 
modern  curing  and  storage  houses  in  the  South  has  changed  the 
aspect  of  commercial  sweet  potato  culture  in  that  region.  Losses 
due  to  rotting  on  account  of  inefficient  storage  facilities  have  been 
reduced,  and  the  moist  southern  type  of  sweet  potato  is  being 
introduced  into  northern  markets. 


QUESTIONS-  259 


QUESTIONS 

1.  Name  four  warm  season  crops  that  are  usually  transplanted. 

2.  Which  is  the  most  generally  grown  of  these  four  crops?    Which  in  your 

neighborhood? 

3.  How  much  time  is  required  to  grow  well-developed  tomato  plants  ready 

for  transplanting? 

4.  Describe  the  most  approved  method  of  growing  tomato  plants  for  an 

early  crop. 

5.  Describe  the  preparation  of  a  field  for  the  planting  of  tomatoes,  and  the 

process  of  transplanting. 

6.  When  should  tomatoes  be  transplanted  to  the  field? 

7.  How  are  tomatoes  cultivated? 

8.  Describe  the  most  practicable  method  of  supporting  tomato  vines. 

9.  What  are  the  advantages  of  staking  tomatoes  as  compared  with  allowing 

them  to  spread  over  the  ground? 

10.  What  precautions  must  be  taken  when  picking  ripe  tomatoes? 

11.  Discuss  the  adaptation  of  varieties  of  tomatoes  to  particular  purposes. 

12.  What  is  the  most  common  disease  attacking  the  foliage  of  the  tomato? 

How  may  it  be  controlled? 

13.  Describe  the  appearance  of  a  tomato  plant  affected  with  the  "wilt." 

14.  What  indirect  methods  of  avoiding  trouble  from  "wilt"  of  tomatoes  may 

be  employed? 

15.  What  are  the  essential  requirements  in  the  growing  of  eggplants? 

16.  When  are  the  seeds  of  eggplants  sown,  and  when  are  the  plants  set  in  the 

field? 

17.  Describe  the  method  of  growing  eggplants  up  to  the  time  of  placing  in 

the  field. 

18.  Describe  the  transplanting  of  eggplants. 

19.  What  insects  attack  eggplants?    How  may  they  be  controlled? 

20.  Describe  the  growing  of  pepper  plants,  and  the  growing  of  the  crop  after 

the  plants  are  set  in  the  field. 

21.  What  are  the  two  general  types  of  peppers?    What  are  the  chief  uses  of 

each? 

22.  What  soil  and  climatic  conditions  are  best  adapted  to  the  culture  of  sweet 

potatoes? 

23.  How  are  sweet  potatoes  propagated? 

24.  Why  are  sweet  potatoes  usually  planted  on  ridges? 

25.  Describe  the  process  of  planting  sweet  potato  "slips." 

26.  What  special  tools  are  used  in  the  tillage  of  sweet  potatoes? 

27.  Describe  the  harvesting  of  sweet  potatoes. 

28.  What  are  the  three  general  types  of  sweet  potatoes?    What  are  the  leading 

characteristics  of  each? 


CHAPTER   XXVII 
SYSTEMS  OF  INTENSIVE  CROPPING 

In  market  gardens  located  on  high-priced  land  and  in  home 
gardens  where  the  available  area  is  limited,  it  is  usually  desirable 
to  grow  more  than  one  crop  on  the  same  land  the  same  season. 
Even  where  land  is  cheap  and  abundant,  it  may  be  more  desirable 
to  produce  an  extra  crop  of  vegetables  late  in  the  season  than  to 
allow  the  land  to  become  infested  with  weeds,  as  would  likely  be 
the  case  if  it  were  allowed  to  be  idle  the  rest  of  the  season,  following 
the  harvesting  of  a  crop  of  early  vegetables. 

The  growing  of  more  than  one  crop  on  the  same  land  the  same 
season  is  usually  referred  to  as  double  cropping.  When  two  or 
more  crops  occupy  the  land  at  the  same  time,  they  are  referred 
to  as  companion  crops  and  the  system  is  called  companion  cropping. 
When  one  crop  is  removed  before  the  other  is  planted  the  system 
is  called  succession  cropping. 

In  companion  cropping  both  crops  are  usually  planted  at  or 
near  the  same  time,  but  one  is  harvested  much  earlier  than  the 
other,  thus  allowing  the  later  crop  the  entire  space  in  which  to 
develop.  In  this  case  the  early  crop  is  usually  incidental,  and  con- 
sidered of  much  less  importance  than  the  later  crop.  For  example, 
radishes  may  be  sown  in  the  same  row  with  parsnips.  They  serve 
the  double  purpose  of  marking  the  row  so  that  the  parsnips  may 
receive  early  tillage,  and  of  giving  some  revenue  from  the  parsnip 
ground  early  in  the  season.  However,  parsnips  are  the  main  crop, 
and  the  radishes  merely  incidental.  In  some  cases,  the  early  or 
incidental  crop  is  planted  between  the  rows  of  the  later  maturing 
crop  instead  of  being  planted  in  the  same  row.  For  example,  a 
row  of  radishes  may  be  sown  between  every  two  rows  of  string 
beans.  The  radishes  are  pulled  long  before  the  bean  harvest  begins. 
In  some  cases,  both  methods  may  be  used  at  the  same  time,  as 
when  head  lettuce  is  planted  between  the  rows  of  early  cabbage 
and  also  between  the  plants  in  the  row.  The  lettuce  is  ready  to 
cut  just  before  the  cabbage  needs  all  the  room. 

Sometimes  two  companion  crops  may  occupy  the  land  nearly 
the  same  length  of  time,  but  are  so  different  in  habit  of  growth 
that  they  do  not  materially  interfere  with  each  other.  This  is 
2G0 


SUCCESSION  CROPPING  261 

true  of  early  sweet  corn  and  summer  squash,  though  in  some 
cases  the  squash,  which  is  really  the  incidental  crop,  may  continue 
to  grow  and  produce  for  a  long  time  after  the  corn  has  been  har- 
vested. Another  combination  in  which  the  later  crop  is  the 
incidental  one  is  onions  and  leeks.  In  this  case  the  leek  seed  is 
mixed  thoroughly  with  the  onion  seed  at  the  rate  of  about  one 
ounce  to  a  pound,  and  the  two  are  sown  together.  The  onions 
are  harvested  when  they  are  ripe  in  August  or  early  September, 
but  the  leeks  continue  growing  until  almost  time  for  the  ground 
to  freeze. 

In  succession  cropping,  each  crop  in  the  series  is  harvested 
and  the  land  usually  cleared,  plowed,  and  thoroughly  fitted  before 
the  next  crop  is  planted.  In  this  kind  of  cropping,  each  crop  in 
the  series  must  be  able  to  complete  its  growth  in  less  than  the  full 
season  and  must  leave  the  land  in  good  condition  for  the  succeeding 
crop.  For  this  reason,  crops  subject  to  attack  by  the  same  insects 
or  diseases  should  not  be  grown  following  one  another.  In  order 
that  the  land  may  be  occupied  the  full  season  it  is  necessary  to 
begin  with  a  cool  season  crop  that  can  be  planted  early.  If  this 
early-planted  crop  is  one  that  matures  in  a  short  time,  it  may  be 
followed  by  a  main  season  crop  requiring  warm  weather.  If, 
however,  the  first  crop  occupies  the  land  until  midsummer,  it  may 
be  too  late  to  plant  a  warm  season  crop,  so  that  a  crop  that  thrives 
during  the  cool  fall  months  may  be  the  only  kind  adapted  to  the 
combination. 

Any  of  the  early  spring  crops,  such  as  radishes,  leaf  lettuce, 
spinach,  green  onions  from  sets,  mustard  or  cress,  may  be  used 
as  the  first  crop  in  a  system  of  succession  cropping.  These  can 
be  harvested  and  the  ground  cleared  in  time  to  plant  a  late  crop 
of  tomatoes,  peppers,  eggplant,  sweet  potatoes,  squash,  cucumbers, 
beans,  or  sweet  corn.  In  case  the  early-planted  crop  were  cabbage, 
cauliflower,  peas,  beets,  carrots,  or  early  potatoes,  the  land  would 
be  occupied  too  late  for  planting  most  of  the  warm  season  crops 
mentioned  above,  with  the  exception  of  dwarf  string  beans  and 
early  varieties  of  sweet  corn.  Early  peas,  beets,  and  potatoes 
could,  however,  be  cleared  from  the  land  in  time  to  plant  late 
cabbage  or  cauliflower,  rutabagas,  turnips,  kohlrabi,  or  winter 
radishes. 

In  some  cases,  three  crops  in  succession  may  be  grown  on  the 
same  land  the  same  season,  and  the  ground  completely  cleared 
and  plowed  before  the  planting  of  each  of  the  crops.     In  order 


262  SYSTEMS  OF  INTENSIVE  CROPPING 

that  this  may  be  done,  all  three  crops  must  have  relatively  short 
periods  of  growth,  and  the  first  and  last  must  be  capable  of  with- 
standing frost.  One  such  combination  would  be:  Leaf  lettuce, 
string  beans,  fall  turnips.  Another  would  be:  Spinach,  early 
sweet  corn,  fall  radishes.  A  third  combination  would  be:  Green 
onions  from  sets,  pickle  cucumbers,  fall  spinach. 

Combination  of  the  Two  Systems. — Sometimes  a  system  of 
intensive  cropping  is  practiced  which  is  essentially  a  combination 
of  companion  and  succession  cropping.  In  this  case  the  second 
crop  is  planted  considerably  later  than  the  first,  but  before  the 
first  has  been  harvested.  For  example,  dwarf  peas  may  be  planted 
early  in  the  spring  in  rows  wide  enough  apart  to  be  cultivated 
with  a  horse.  About  the  time  the  tillage  of  the  peas  would  normally 
cease,  sweet  corn  is  planted  between  the  rows  of  peas,  and  culti- 
vated close  to  the  rows  with  a  wheel  hoe  if  necessary  before  the 
peas  are  harvested.  Upon  the  removal  of  the  peas,  the  tillage 
of  the  corn  is  continued  with  a  horse  cultivator.  After  the  tillage 
of  the  corn  ceases,  turnips  may  be  sown  broadcast  between  the 
rows. 

Another  example  of  this  method  of  cropping  would  be  to  plant 
winter  squashes  in  a  patch  of  early  potatoes  where  a  few  hills 
(properly  spaced)  have  been  dug  in  advance  of  the  regular  harvest. 
In  a  field  of  onions  grown  from  seed,  every  fourth  or  fifth  row  may 
be  pulled  out  early  in  July  and  sold  as  bunch  onions,  and  a  row 
of  celery  planted  to  fill  the  space.  After  the  regular  crop  of  onions 
has  been  harvested  in  August  or  early  September,  the  banking 
of  the  celery  can  begin. 

The  above  combinations  of  vegetables  for  intensive  systems 
of  cropping  are  mentioned  merely  to  illustrate  the  principles 
involved.  A  large  number  of  other  combinations  might  be  em- 
ployed. The  particular  set  of  crops  to  be  selected  would  depend 
to  considerable  extent  upon  the  demands  of  the  market  to  be  sup- 
plied, the  length  of  the  growing  season,  and  the  amount  of  rainfall 
or  artificial  water  supply  that  could  be  depended  upon  at  the  time 
the  later  crops  would  necessarily  be  planted.  The  above  combina- 
tions are  based  upon  the  assumption  that  planting  could  proceed 
at  any  time  desired,  without  waiting  for  belated  rainfall.  With 
facilities  for  artificial  watering  this  would  be  true;  in  gardens 
entirely  dependent  upon  rainfall  for  the  moisture  supply,  it  might 
not  be. 

Relative  Merits  of  the  Different  Systems. — Companion  crop- 


QUESTIONS  263 

ping  pure  and  simple,  where  both  crops  are  planted  at  the  same 
time,  and  preferably  in  the  same  row,  is  the  most  easily  managed 
kind  of  double  cropping  under  ordinary  conditions  of  soil  and 
moisture.  Care  is  taken  to  use  crops  that  do  well  under  the  same 
conditions  and  with  the  same  kind  and  amount  of  cultivation. 
The  planting  is  done  in  the  normal  season,  when  the  soil  is  properly 
supplied  with  moisture,  and  both  crops  get  a  good  start.  The 
only  danger  is  in  planting  too  thickly  or  allowing  the  secondary 
or  incidental  crop  to  remain  too  long  and  thus  encroach  upon  the 
forage  space  and  sunshine  area  needed  by  the  main  crop.  The 
gardener  must  know  to  a  nicety  the  length  of  season  and  extent 
of  foliage  and  root  development  normal  to  the  particular  varieties 
he  proposes  to  plant.  Early  Scarlet  Turnip  radish  could  be  used 
in  places  where  Strasburg  would  not  be  permissible. 

Succession  cropping  is  very  satisfactory  where  only  two  crops 
are  attempted  and  where  there  is  plenty  of  rainfall  immediately 
preceding  and  following  the  planting  of  the  second  crop.  In  central, 
unirrigated  localities,  the  season  is  likely  to  be  too  short  to  allow 
the  full  development  of  three  crops  and  time  enough  between  the 
successive  crops  to  wait  for  rain  and  prepare  the  soil  for  planting. 

The  chief  objections  to  the  combination  of  companion  and  suc- 
cession cropping,  in  which  the  second  crop  is  planted  shortly 
before  the  harvesting  of  the  first,  are  that  the  seed-bed  for  planting 
the  second  crop  cannot  be  very  thoroughly  prepared,  and  the 
young  plants  are  likely  to  be  encroached  upon  by  the  first  crop 
and  subjected  to  tramping  during  its  harvest.  The  tramping  is 
especially  likely  to  take  place  if  the  second  crop  is  planted  between 
the  rows  of  the  first,  and  the  over-shadowing  by  the  first  crop  is 
likely  to  be  most  severe  if  the  second  crop  is  in  the  same  row  with 
the  first. 

In  general  it  may  be  said  that  if  double  cropping  is  to  be  applied 
to  any  considerable  number  of  crops  and  carried  on  with  any  pro- 
nounced degree  of  success,  the  soil  must  be  exceedingly  rich  and 
abundantly  supplied  with  moisture;  and  the  gardener  must  be 
master  of  his  art. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Under  what  circumstances  is  it  advisable  to  grow  more  than  one  crop  on 

the  same  land  in  one  season? 

2.  What  are  the  two  kinds  of  double  cropping? 

3.  Define  "  companion  cropping,"  and  give  examples  of  suitable  combinations. 

4.  What  factors  must  be  considered  in  selecting  crops  for  a  system  of  com- 

panion cropping? 


264  SYSTEMS  OF  INTENSIVE  CROPPING 

5.  Describe  the  system  of  double  cropping  known  as  "succession  cropping." 

6.  What  principles  must  be  observed  in  selecting  a  series  of  crops  for  suc- 

cession cropping  ? 

7.  Give  examples  of  suitable  crops  for  succession  cropping. 

8.  How  may  companion  and  succession  cropping  be  combined  into  one  sys- 

tem?   Give  examples  of  suitable  combinations. 

9.  Discuss  the  relative  merits  of  the  different  systems  of  double  croppingv 

10.  On  what  general  factors  does  the  success  of  double  cropping  depend? 

11.  Give  examples  of  intensive  cropping  used  in  your  section. 


CHAPTER  XXVIII 
THE  HOME  VEGETABLE  GARDEN  * 

As  suggested  in  Chapter  I,  a  home  vegetable  garden  is  main- 
tained for  the  purpose  of  supplying  the  home  table  with  fresh 
vegetables,  and  should  furnish  as  large  an  assortment  and  as  con- 
tinuous a  supply  as  circumstances  will  permit.  In  the  ideal  garden, 
the  supply  is  continuous  throughout  the  season.  Many  gardens 
would  be  much  better  than  they  are,  and  much  time  and  annoy- 
ance would  be  saved  during  their  planting,  if  the  gardener  made  a 
definite  plan  of  his  garden  several  weeks  before  time  for  the  plant- 
ing to  begin.  Suggestive  plans  for  the  three  types  of  home  gardens 
mentioned  in  Chapter  I  will  be  presented  in  the  present  chapter, 
together  with  relative  dates  of  planting  for  the  different  crops 
and  other  suggestions  regarding  matters  especially  pertinent  to 
the  proper  management  of  home  gardens  of  different  types. 

THE    FARMER'S    GARDEN 

Plan  of  the  Garden. — It  has  already  been  suggested  (see 
Chapter  I)  that  the  garden  on  the  farm  be  planted  in  long  rows 
and  cultivated  with  a  horse,  and  that  every  means  possible  be 
employed  to  reduce  the  hand  labor  to  a  minimum.  Time  and  con- 
fusion in  both  planting  and  tending  the  garden  will  be  saved  if 
the  vegetables  are  grouped  according  to  their  cultural  requirements, 
and  the  number  of  plantings  made  as  small  as  is  consistent  with 
the  demands  of  the  various  crops.  Each  group  of  crops  may  then 
be  planted  and  tended  as  one  crop,  and  the  garden  operations 
thus  greatly  simplified.  When  more  than  one  planting  of  a  given 
crop  is  desired  for  the  sake  of  securing  a  succession,  the  second 
planting  may  be  put  in  at  the  same  time  that  other  crops  are  being 
planted,  so  that  even  in  this  case  the  number  of  plantings  need 
not  be  multiplied.  The  use  of  two  or  more  varieties  of  the  same 
vegetable,  differing  in  their  times  of  maturity,  will  also  aid  in 
keeping  down  the  number  of  different  plantings. 

The  exact  plan  of  the  garden  will  depend  upon  the  personal 
tastes  of  the  owner,  and  will  be  different  for  each  individual. 

*  Much  of  the  material  in  this  chapter  has  been  adapted  from  Circular 
154  of  the  Illinois  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 

265 


266 


THE  HOME  VEGETABLE  GARDEN 


^ 


i* 


1° 


ARRANGEMENT  267 

The  accompanying  plan  (Fig.  163)  is  presented  merely  as  a  sug- 
gestion, and  illustrates  one  possible  arrangement  of  a  farmer's 
garden  planned  with  a  view  to  securing  a  large  assortment  and 
continuous  supply  of  vegetables,  and  at  the  same  time  simplifying 
the  planting  and  minimizing  the  labor  of  tillage.  The  area  desig- 
nated comprises  nearly  half  an  acre,  but  smaller  or  larger  gardens 
could  be  arranged  in  much  the  same  way.  Except  where  noted, 
the  rows  are  three  feet  apart. 

Time  of  Planting.— In  central  latitudes  the  planting  of  the 
garden  here  illustrated  would  be  as  follows: 

First  planting,  about  April  1: 

Row    1.  Perennials:  %  row  asparagus;  %  row  rhubarb;  %  row  perennial 

onions,  j 
Row    2.  %  row  parsley;  %  row  carrots;  %  row  parsnips.     (Marked  with 

turnip  radishes.) 
Row    3.  Onions  (yellow). 
Row    4.  %  row  early  beets;  }i  row  onions  (white).     (Marked  with  long 

radishes.) 
Row    5.  %  row  lettuce;  %  row  onion  sets;  %  row  turnips;  %  row  spinach. 

(Followed  by  celery  planted  July  1.) 
Row    6.  Peas:    %  row  extra  early  smooth;  %  row  early  dwarf  wrinkled. 

(Followed  by  string  beans  planted  July  1.) 
Rows  7,  8  and  9.  Early  potatoes.    (Followed  by  turnips  sown  August  1.) 
Second  planting,  about  April  20: 

Row  10.  Peas:    K>  row  early  dwarf  wrinkled;  \i  row  late  wrinkled. 

Row  11.  Y\  row  early  cabbage  (30  plants,  2  feet  apart);  )i  row  cauliflower; 

%  row  lettuce;  %  row  beets  (marked  with  long  radishes). 
Third  planting,  about  May  1: 

Row  12.  %  row  summer  cabbage  (transplanted);  %  row  of  same  (seed 

sown) ;  H  row  string  beans. 
Row  13.  Sweet  corn:    %  row  extra  early;  %  row  second  early. 
Fourth  planting,  about  May  15: 

Row  14.  Tomatoes  (60  plants,  4  feet  apart).    (4  feet  from  row  13.) 
Row  15.  K  row  Lima  beans;  %  row  string  beans;   %  row  peppers    (30 

plants).     (4  feet  from  row  14.) 
Row  16.  Late  cabbage  (seed  sown). 

Row  17.  Sweet  corn:  %  row  extra  early;  %  row  second  early. 
Row  18.  Sweet  corn:    two  late  varieties. 
Rows  19,  20,  21  and  22.  Vine  crops  in  hills  6x6  feet,  in  blocks  crosswise 

the  four  rows,  as  follows:    40  hills  cucumbers;  12  hills  summer 

squash;  28  hills  winter  squash;  40  hills  watermelons;  40  hills 

muskmelons. 
Fifth  planting,  about  June  1: 

Row  23.  Sweet  potatoes  (6  feet  from  row  22). 

Arrangement. — It  will  be  observed  that  the  vegetables  are 
arranged  strictly  in  the  order  of  their  planting,  so  that  planting 
may  begin  at  one  side  of  the  garden  and  proceed  across  the  area 


268  THE  HOME  VEGETABLE  GARDEN 

as  the  season  advances.  This  makes  it  possible  to  easily  fit  a 
piece  of  land  for  planting  or  to  harrow  the  implanted  portion  at 
any  time  desired  and  thus  keep  it  free  from  weeds  and  in  a  moist, 
friable  condition.  Another  feature  of  this  plan  is  that  while  two 
or  three  kinds  of  vegetables  may  be  planted  in  the  same  row,  all 
the  crops  in  a  given  row  require  essentially  the  same  kind  and 
amount  of  tillage  and  other  care.  It  is  also  true  that  the  crops 
occupying  the  land  about  the  same  length  of  time  are  planted 
together.  After  the  early-maturing  crops  are  harvested,  it  is 
therefore  possible  to  clear  quite  a  wide  strip  of  land  for  the  planting 
of  turnips  and  other  late  crops,  if  desired. 

While  this  plan  specifies  five  different  times  of  planting,  besides 
the  celery,  late  beans  and  turnips,  it  is  possible  in  some  seasons 
to  combine  the  second  and  third  plantings  so  that,  if  celery  and 
sweet  potatoes  are  omitted,  there  will  be  only  three  plantings 
besides  the  turnips  or  other  incidental  late  crops.  This  simplifies 
the  planting  and  better  adapts  the  garden  to  the  tastes  of  the 
average  farmer. 

Labor-saving  Methods. — The  arrangement  of  the  garden  as 
to  length  of  rows  and  time  of  planting  is  not  the  only  labor-saving 
feature  that  should  characterize  the  typical  farmer's  garden. 
Field  methods  should  be  practiced  in  preparing  the  land  for  plant- 
ing, and  as  much  preliminary  work  done  in  the  fall  as  is  possible, 
for  two  purposes:  (1)  securing  an  early  garden,  and  (2)  reducing 
the  amount  of  labor  in  spring.  After  the  land  is  cleared  of  refuse 
from  preceding  crops,  it  should  be  heavily  manured  and  plowed 
in  the  fall.  If  this  is  done  and  the  land  worked  at  the  proper 
time  in  spring,  a  seed-bed  can  be  prepared  by  the  use  of  a  disk, 
harrow,  and  planker.  The  use  of  these  tools  saves  an  enormous 
amount  of  labor  and  is  a  vast  improvement  over  the  old  method 
of  using  a  hoe  and  rake. 

The  actual  planting  of  the  garden  is  a  simple  matter,  provided 
a  definite  plan  has  previously  been  made,  so  that  no  time  is  lost 
in  deciding  which  vegetable  to  plant  first,  where  to  plant  it,  or 
how  much  to  plant.  In  the  home  garden,  only  a  small  amount 
of  seed  of  each  kind  is  planted,  so  that  a  seed  drill  cannot  be  used 
to  advantage,  and  the  planting  is  therefore  almost  invariably 
done  by  hand. 

Labor-saving  methods  can  be  employed  in  the  care  of  the  grow- 
ing crop  as  well  as  the  preparation  of  the  seed-bed.  Mention  has 
already-  been  made  of  the  desirability  of  planting  the  garden  in 


THE  VILLAGE  OR  SUBURBAN  GARDEN  269 

long  rows  so  that  horse  tillage  may  be  introduced.  By  the  use  of 
a  narrow-tooth  cultivator  (Fig.  164)  it  is  possible,  with  a  steady 
horse,  to  work  fairly  close  to  the  rows  of  even  small  vegetables. 
However,  for  the  early  tillage  close  to  the  rows  of  beets,  onions, 
carrots,  and  similar  crops,  there  is  nothing  equal  to  a  wheel  hoe; 
and  throughout  the  season  this  tool  can  be  very  largely  substituted 
for  the  hand  hoe.  Its  use  will  result  in  a  great  saving  of  labor. 
Labor  will  also  be  saved  by  cultivating  the  garden  frequently, 
and  keeping  the  soil  in  good,  friable  condition,  rather  than  tilling 


Fig.  164. — Narrow-tooth  cultivator — an  excellent  tillage  tool  for  the  farmer's  home  garden. 

it  at  less  frequent  intervals  and  allowing  the  ground  to  become 
baked  before  it  is  tilled  after  a  rain. 

THE    VILLAGE    OR   SUBURBAN    GARDEN 

In  striking  contrast  to  gardening  on  the  farm,  hand  tillage  in  a 
suburban  garden  is  not  looked  upon  as  irksome  or  a  waste  of  time 
that  might  be  better  employed  in  the  field;  for  suburban  gardening 
is  often  done  fully  as  much  for  the  pleasure  of  working  among 
the  plants  and  seeing  them  grow  as  for  the  edible  products  they 
yield.  Instead  of  concentrating  the  garden  work  into  as  small  a 
number  of  items  as  possible,  as  is  desirable  on  the  farm,  the 
suburban  gardener  often  prefers  to  take  a  little  exercise  in  his 
garden  each  morning  or  evening  and  thus  distribute  a  given  piece 
of  work  over  several  days. 


270         THE  HOME  VEGETABLE  GARDEN 

Plan  of  the  Garden. — As  intimated  above,  the  personality  of 
the  gardener  is  likely  to  have  fuller  scope  in  the  village  or  suburban 
garden  than  on  the  farm.  This  means  that  each  garden  is  likely 
to  be  radically  different  from  any  other,  both  in  the  kind  of  vege- 
tables grown  and  in  their  arrangement  in  the  garden.  The  gardens 
also  will  vary  greatly  in  size  and  shape,  depending  upon  the  land 
available  for  gardening  purposes.  It  is  therefore  difficult  to  suggest 
an  arrangement  of  vegetables  for  such  a  garden.  However,  the 
accompanying  plan  (Fig.  165)  is  inserted,  showing  one  possible 
arrangement  of  vegetables  in  a  garden  thirty  by  sixty  feet.  Doubt- 
less an  entirely  different  selection  of  vegetables  would  be  made 
by  some  gardeners,  and  rightly  so,  for  the  personal  element  should 




fJSPARfHUS   

■""  ~ 

_f-_-l!        ^^        0LL°U"     01     ~TnmC    OL,W„ 

LETTUCE,  FOLLOWED 

-.„~,  „_                                                                                                               _,..,..,.  ._„..t,. 

H      ,     OLL     WED  BY         LE 

*"'"""      •"■"-'    — ««.........•..         - - 

Fig.    165. — Diagram  of  suburban  garden  30  by  60  feet. 

pervade  the  garden  if  the  greatest  amount  of  pleasure  is  to  be 
realized. 

The  planting  of  the  garden  here  illustrated  would  be  about 
as  follows: 

Distance  from 
preceding  row 

Early  planting,  beginning  about  April  1  Feet 

Row    1.  Permanent  row  of  asparagus.    (1.5  feet  from  edge)..  .  .     1.5 

Row    2.  30  feet  lettuce;  30  feet  radishes 1.5 

Row    3.  Spinach   (followed  by   cucumbers  and  bush  squash, 

planted  May  20) 

Row    4.  Onion  sets 

Row    5.  20  feet  early  turnips;  20  feet  mustard;  20  feet  cress..  . 
Row    6.  Early  beets  (followed  by  late  cabbage  set  July  1) .  .  .  . 

Row    7.  Onions  from  seed 

Row    8.  20  feet  parsley;  40  feet  carrots 


TILLAGE  271 

Row    9.  Parsnips 1 

Row  10.  Early  dwarf  peas  (followed  by  string  beans  planted 

July  1) 1.5 

Second  planting,  about  April  20: 

Row  11.  2  dozen  cabbage;  1  dozen  cauliflower 1.5 

Row  12.  30  feet  lettuce;  30  feet  radishes  (followed  by  celery 

set  July  1) 1.5 

Row  13.  Late  wrinkled  peas  (with  support) 1.5 

Third  planting,  about  May  1 : 

Row  14.  String  beans  (green  and  wax) 2 

Row  15.  Early  sweet  corn  (followed  by  2  rows  turnips  sown 

August  1) 2.5 

Fourth  planting,  about  May  15: 

Row  16.  Late  sweet  corn 2.5 

Row  17.  40  feet  dwarf  Lima  beans;  20  feet  peppers 2.5 

Row  18.  1  dozen  tomatoes;  J/£  dozen  eggplants 3 

Margin 1.5 

Total  width  of  garden 30.0 

The  rows  of  vegetables,  as  indicated  in  the  diagram,  are  about 
as  close  together  as  the  growth  of  the  respective  crops  will  permit. 
It  is  assumed  that  the  tomatoes  are  to  be  trained  to  stakes  and 
thus  confined  to  a  smaller  area  than  if  allowed  to  spread  naturally 
over  the  ground. 

It  will  be  noted  that,  with  the  exception  of  the  permanent  row 
of  asparagus,  the  vegetables  are  arranged  in  the  order  of  their 
planting,  though  such  an  arrangement  is  not  so  essential  as  in  a 
farmer's  garden,  since  hand  methods  are  to  be  employed  in  fitting 
the  soil  for  planting,  and  a  small  area  can  be  fitted  in  almost 
any  part  of  the  garden  whenever  needed.  However,  a  simple, 
orderly  arrangement,  like  that  suggested,  is  often  a  matter  of 
convenience. 

Soil  Preparation. — If  the  garden  has  been  plowed  in  the  fall, 
there  need  be  no  delay  in  planting  after  the  soil  has  reached  work- 
able condition  in  the  spring.  The  ground  can  be  fitted  for  planting 
by  the  use  of  a  hoe  and  rake,  and  planting  may  begin  as  soon  as 
a  strip  wide  enough  for  one  or  two  rows  has  been  prepared.  If 
each  strip  of  ground  is  planted  the  same  day  as  it  is  prepared, 
quick  germination  will  be  insured,  and  the  early  contest  with 
weeds  forestalled. 

Tillage. — In  a  small  garden  much  of  the  tillage  can  be  done 
with  a  steel  rake.  This  is  an  ideal  tool  for  maintaining  a  dust 
mulch,  and  can  be  operated  more  rapidly  than  a  hoe.  If  the  soil 
is  stirred  with  the  rake  as  soon  as  sufficiently  dry  after  a  rain,  it 


272  THE  HOME  VEGETABLE  GARDEN 

can  be  kept  in  a  loose,  friable  condition,  the  moisture  retained 
and  the  weeds  given  no  chance  to  start. 

The  efficiency  of  a  rake  as  a  tillage  tool  depends  upon  the  fre- 
quency of  its  use.  If  a  crust  is  allowed  to  form,  or  the  weeds  to 
start,  the  rake  is  rendered  useless,  and  the  only  resort  is  the  hoe. 
This  is  a  more  effective  tillage  tool  than  it  is  sometimes  credited 
with  being.  Much  of  the  dissatisfaction  in  the  use  of  the  hoe  is 
due  to  the  misconception  that  a  hoe  is  necessarily  dull.  As  a 
matter  of  fact,  to  do  effective  work,  a  hoe  must  be  kept  sharp 
by  the  occasional  use  of  a  file. 

While  the  rake  and  hand  hoe  are  well  adapted  to  the  tillage 
of  a  small  garden,  the  real  pleasures  of  gardening  remain  unknown 
to  the  person  who  has  never  used  a  wheel  hoe.  This  modern 
invention  stimulates  good  gardening.  Like  the  rake,  however, 
it  is  useless  in  badly  crusted  or  weedy  ground.  The  experienced 
gardener  will  use  it  often,  and  thus  keep  the  soil  of  his  garden  in 
ideal  condition. 

THE    CITY   GARDEN 

In  the  city  garden,  in  order  that  maximum  crops  may  be 
produced  from  a  minimum  space,  it  is  essential  that  the  ground  be 
kept  fully  occupied  all  the  time.  This  means  not  only  that  the 
rows  of  vegetables  will  be  planted  close  together,  but  that  short- 
season  crops  will  be  planted  between  the  rows  and  even  the  plants 
of  longer-season  crops,  and  that  as  soon  as  one  crop  is  harvested 
another  will  be  planted  in  its  place.  Also,  transplanting  may  be 
practiced  to  a  considerable  extent  to  save  space  during  the  early 
growth  of  the  plants.  The  full  amount  of  space  required  by  a  given 
plant  at  maturity  is  allotted  to  that  plant  the  shortest  possible 
time.  Extremely  rapid  growth  is  made  possible  by  making  the 
soil  very  rich  and  applying  water  copiously.  The  land  is  kept  at 
work  from  early  spring  till  late  in  autumn,  and  two  or  even  three 
crops  may  be  harvested  from  the  same  area. 

Kinds  of  Vegetables. — Since  planting  must  be  close,  and  a 
large  amount  of  edible  product  secured  from  each  square  foot  of 
ground,  it  will  be  necessary  to  omit  from  a  garden  of  this  kind 
some  of  the  larger-growing  vegetables  which  yield  a  relatively 
small  edible  product  for  the  amount  of  space  occupied.  Predomi- 
nance should  be  given  to  the  vegetables  which  produce  the  largest 
amount  of  edible  material  in  proportion  to  the  space  occupied 
by  the  plant,  and  the  length  of  time  this  space  is  occupied.    Sweet 


PLAN  OF  THE  GARDEN  273 

corn,  melons  and  squashes  will  therefore  be  omitted,  and  the  garden 
devoted  chiefly  to  such  crops  as  lettuce,  radishes,  parsley,  cress, 
mustard,  beets,  chard,  carrots,  onions  from  sets,  string  beans,  and 
turnips;  though  cabbage,  spinach,  peas,  peppers,  tomatoes,  and 
even  cucumbers  may  sometimes  be  included.  If  tomatoes  are 
grown  they  are  trained  in  an  upright  position,  so  that  compara- 
tively little  ground  space  is  occupied. 

Plan  of  the  Garden. — The  dimensions  of  a  city  back  yard 
garden  will  vary  with  the  amount  of  land  available  for  the  purpose; 


^3 


•  Onion  acts— 6  inches  from  edge   of    garden    area. J- 

Rod,  sh«  —  Followed    by    tomatoes j. 

Early   beets (■ 

Early    beets 


■Lettuce —  Followed    by    to 

Mustard    or    Cress- 

Dwarf     peas- 


f Onion    sets  —  Followed   by  peppe 

p Dwarf     peas 


-Spinach — Followed    by  string  beans — Followed   by    lettu.ee> 
Early    turnips 


Spinach — Followed   by    string  beans- Followed    by   lettuce.- 

Early   corrots 

Parsley— — . 


-Lettuce—   5econd   planting. 
Chard 


Radishes—   Second  planting- 


-Early   cabbages— Fol  lowed   by    late    string    be 
Radishes—  Third   planting 


Fig.   166. — Suggested  plan  for  a  back  yard  garden  where  space  is  limited. 

and  the  selection  of  vegetables  will  be  determined  partly  by  the 
taste  of  the  gardener  and  partly  by  the  limitations  of  space.  A 
selection  of  vegetables  and  their  arrangement  for  a  garden  twenty 
by  twenty-five  feet  are  suggested  in  the  accompanying  plan  (Fig. 
166).  The  rows  are  to  run  lengthwise  the  area.  The  original 
planting  of  rows  1  to  14  inclusive  is  to  be  made  as  soon  as 
the  ground  can  be  worked  in  the  spring;  that  is,  about  April  1, 
in  central  latitudes.  Rows  15  to  18  are  to  be  planted  from 
two  to  three  weeks  later,  and  row  19  is  to  be  planted  about 
18 


274         THE  HOME  VEGETABLE  GARDEN 

May  1.  It  will  be  noted  that  in  the  original  plantings  the  rows 
are  to  be  only  one  foot  apart.  When  the  harvesting  of  the 
radishes,  lettuce,  green  onions,. and  spinach  begins,  if  care  is  taken 
to  remove  plants  first  from  definite  spots  spaced  at  proper  intervals, 
the  tomatoes,  peppers,  and  string  beans  can  be  planted  in  the  same 
rows  considerably  before  the  harvesting  of  these  early  crops  is 
completed.  The  early  beets,  mustard,  and  peas  in  the  intervening 
rows  can  be  harvested  before  the  tomatoes  and  peppers  need  all 
the  space.  Likewise  the  turnips,  carrots,  and  second  plantings  of 
lettuce  and  radishes  will  be  removed  by  the  time  the  string  beans, 
parsley,  chard,  and  cabbage  begin  to  crowd  for  room. 

Tillage. — The  close  planting  advised  calls  for  an  abundance 
of  tillage,  as  well  as  plant  food  and  water.  Since  the  rows  of  the 
original  planting  are  almost  too  close  together  for  the  convenient 
use  of  a  rake,  a  narrow-bladed  hoe  and  a  three-fingered  weeder 
attached  to  a  long  handle  are  the  most  useful  tools  for  working 
among  the  plants.  The  general  principles  of  tillage  and  other 
care  of  the  growing  crops  are  the  same  as  in  any  garden,  but  the 
details  of  the  work  must  be  adjusted  to  meet  the  conditions  of 
the  intensive  gardening. 

VARIETIES    OF    VEGETABLES    FOR    THE    HOME    GARDEN 

For  the  home  garden  particular  care  should  be  taken  to  select 
varieties  that  are  capable  of  yielding  a  product  of  high  quality. 
Such  varieties  are  numerous,  though  some  are  better  for  one  region 
than  another.  The  following  list  gives  a  few  of  the  sorts  which 
have  a  wide  range  of  adaptation  and  are  quite  generally  recognized 
as  reliable  sorts  for  planting  in  home  gardens: 

Asparagus. — Palmetto,  Barr's  Mammoth,  Washington. 

Beans. — Stringless  Green  Pod,  Maule's  Profusion,  Henderson's  Bush 
Lima,  King  of  Garden  Lima. 

Beets. — Crosby's  Egyptian,  Detroit  Dark  Red,  New  Century. 

Cabbage. — Jersey  Wakefield,  Copenhagen  Market,  All  Seasons,  Wiscon- 
sin Hollander,  Corn  Belt. 

Carrot. — Early  Scarlet  Horn,  Chantenay. 

Cauliflower. — Burpee 's  Dry  Weather. 

Celery. — White  Plume,  Giant  Pascal. 

Chard. — Lucullus. 

Sweet  Corn. — Golden  Bantam,  Golden  Giant,  Mammoth  White  Cory, 
Howling  Mob,  Stowell  's  Evergreen,  Country  Gentleman. 

Cress. — Fine  Curled. 

Cucumber. — Emerald,  Davis  Perfect,  White  Spine,  Chicago  Pickle. 


QUANTITIES  OF  SEED  TO  BUY  275 

Eggplant. — Black  Beauty,  New  York  Improved  Purple. 

Kale. — Dwarf  German,  Tall  Green  Curled  Scotch. 

Kohlrabi. — Early  White  Vienna. 

Lettuce. — Black-seeded  Simpson,  Morse,  Mignonette,  May  King,  Hanson, 
New  York  Wonderful. 

Mustard. — Giant  Southern  Curled. 

Muskmclon. — Hoodoo,  Rust-resistant  Rocky  Ford,  Tip  Top,  Osage. 

Watermelon. — Cole's  Early,  Fordhook  Early,  Kleckley  Sweets,  Tom 
Watson. 

Okra. — Perfected  Perkin  's  Long  Pod. 

Onion. — Southport  Yellow  Globe,  Southport  White  Globe,  Australian 
Brown,  Prizetaker,  Southport  Red  Globe. 

Parsley.—  Extra  Dark  Moss  Curled. 

Parsnip. — Improved  Guernsey. 

Peas. — -Alaska,  Little  Marvel,  Carter 's  Daisy,  Vick  's  Charmer. 

Pepper. — Ruby  King,  Chinese  Giant,  Sweet  Mountain  Neapolitan  Salad, 
Pimento. 

Radish. — Earliest  White,  Early  Scarlet  Globe,  Cincinnati  Market,  White 
Icicle,  White  Strasburg,  White  Chinese  (winter). 

Rhubarb. — Victoria,  Chicago  Giant. 

Salsify. — Sandwich  Island  Mammoth. 

Spinach. — Long  Standing,  Victoria,  Triumph. 

Squash. — Giant  Summer  Crookneck,  Fordhook,  Hubbard,  Des  Moines. 

Tomato. — Langdon's  Earliana,  Bonny  Best,  Livingston's  Globe,  Wilt 
Resistant  Strain  of  New  Century,  Stone. 

Turnip. — Purple  Top  Globe,  Early  White  Milan. 

QUANTITIES   OF   SEED    TO    BUY 

It  is  always  a  safe  plan  to  have  a  little  more  seed  on  hand  than 
is  actually  needed  to  plant  the  area  desired.  Sometimes  the  first 
planting  of  a  given  crop  is  destroyed  by  frost  or  insects,  making 
replanting  necessary.  In  such  a  case,  delay  in  replanting  could 
be  avoided  by  having  the  seeds  on  hand.  The  additional  expense 
is  slight  compared  with  the  value  of  the  crop.  In  the  case  of  many 
seeds,  an  ounce  costs  but  little  more  than  a  packet;  and  in  such 
cases  it  is  the  part  of  wisdom  to  purchase  an  ounce,  even  though 
a  packet  might  contain  sufficient  seed  to  barely  plant  the  desired 
area.  The  more  expensive  seeds  may  be  purchased  in  smaller 
quantities,  with  less  margin  between  the  actual  amount  required 
and  the  quantity  purchased. 

For  the  benefit  of  beginners,  who  may  be  unfamiliar  with  the 
quantities  of  seed  needed  to  plant  a  garden  of  a  given  size,  the 
following  tabular  statement  is  inserted.  It  represents  the  quanti- 
ties of  seeds  which  should  be  purchased  for  planting  the  gardens 
described  on  pages  267, 270,  and  273,  respectively,  with  due  allow- 
ance for  a  normal  amount  of  replanting. 


276 


THE  HOME  VEGETABLE  GARDEN 


Table  III. — Quantities  of  Seed  for  Different  Sized  Gardens. 


Asparagus 

Beans,  green  podded. 

Beans,  wax 

Beans,  Lima 

Beets 

Cabbage,  early 


Cabbage,  second  early.  .  . 

Cabbage,  late 

Carrot 

Cauliflower 

Celery 

Chard 

Sweet  corn,  extra  early. . 
Sweet  corn,  second  early. 

Sweet  corn,  late 

Cress 

Cucumber 

Eggplant 


Farmer's 
garden 


Lettuce,  leaf 

Lettuce,  head 

Muskmelon 

Mustard 

Onion  seed 

Onion  sets,  bottom 

Onion  sets,  top  (perennial) . 

Parsley 

Parsnip 

Peas,  extra  early  smooth. .  . 
Peas,  early  dwarf  wrinkled . 

Peas,  late  wrinkled 

Pepper 


Potatoes 

Radish 

Rhubarb 

Spinach 

Squash,  summer. 
Squash,  winter. . 
Sweet  potatoes. . 
Tomato 


Turnip 

Watermelon. 


100  roots 
lpt. 
1  pt. 

1  pt. 

2  oz. 

1  pkt. 

1  pkt. 
1  pkt. 
1  oz. 
1  pkt. 
1  oz. 

1  pt. 
lpt. 
1  pt. 

1  oz. 


1  oz. 

1  oz. 

2oz. 
1  qt. 
1  qt. 
1  pkt. 
1  oz. 

1  pt. 

1  qt. 
1  pt. 
1  pkt. 

3pks. 
3oz. 
1  oz. 
1  oz. 
1  oz. 

1  oz. 
200  plants 

2  pkts. 

1  oz. 
1  oz. 


Suburban 
garden 


50  roots 

Mvt. 
Mpt. 
Hpt. 

1  oz. 
lpkt. 


1  pkt, 
1  pkt. 
1  pkt. 
1  pkt. 

Hpt. 

H  Pt.' 

1  pkt 
1  oz. 
%  doz. 
plants 
1  pkt. 
1  pkt. 

1  pkt. 
1  oz. 

1  qt. 

1  pkt. 
1  pkt. 

\i  pt.' 
Kpt. 
i  pkt. 


1  oz. 
1  pkt. 


1  pkt. 
1  pkt. 


City 
garden 


Hpt. 


1  OZ. 

\V2  doz. 
plants 


pkt. 
pkt. 

pkt. 


1  pkt. 
1  pkt. 

pkt. 

qt. 

pkt. 


Hpt. 

\]/2  doz. 
plants 

1  oz. 

1  oz. 


\x/i  doz. 
plants 
1  pkt. 


QUESTIONS  277 


QUESTIONS 

1.  What  are  the  advantages  of  planning  a  garden  before  starting  to  plant  it? 

2.  How  should  vegetables  be  grouped  in  a  farmer's  home  garden  to  save  time 

and  confusion  in  planting  and  tending  the  various  crops? 

3.  What  is  a  convenient  size  and  shape  for  a  farmer's  home  garden? 

4.  How  many  different  plantings  are  likely  to  be  required  in  a  farmer's 

vegetable  garden  in  order  to  insure  a  full  assortment  and  continuous 
supply  of  vegetables  throughout  the  season? 

5.  Give  approximate  dates  for  planting  each  of  the  common  vegetables  in 

central  latitudes. 

6.  Enumerate  the  desirable  features  of  the  arrangement  of  vegetables  sug- 

gested in  the  plan  of  a  farmer's  vegetable  garden  on  page  266. 

7.  What  labor-saving  methods  of  soil  preparation  should  be  employed  in  a 

farmer's  vegetable  garden? 

8.  What  labor-saving  methods  of  cultivating  the  growing  crops  should  be 

employed  in  the  farmer's  garden? 

9.  Contrast  the  village  or  suburban  garden  with  the  farmer's  garden. 

10.  Give  the  minimum  distances  for  planting  each  of  the  common  vegetables 

when  hand  methods  of  tillage  are  to  be  employed.     How  much  more 
space  is  required  when  a  horse  cultivator  is  to  be  used? 

11.  How  can  the  soil  in  a  suburban  garden  best  be  fitted  for  planting? 

12.  Discuss  the  efficiency  of  the  rake  as  a  tillage  tool. 

13.  What  are  the  characteristics  of  a  city  back  yard  garden? 

14.  Discuss  the  arrangement  of  vegetables  under  an  intensive  system  of  crop- 

ping in  a  city  garden  when  space  is  limited. 

15.  What  should  be  the  predominating  characteristic  of  a  variety  of  vegetables 

selected  for  the  home  garden? 

16.  Name  from  one  to  three  high  quality  varieties  of  each  of  the  common 

vegetables  adapted  to  the  home  garden. 

17.  Why  is  it  an  advantage  to  have  more  seed  on  hand  than  is  actually  needed 

for  planting  the  area  contemplated? 

18.  Should  seeds  for  a  farmer's  home  garden  usually  be  purchased  by  the 

packet  or  the  ounce? 


CHAPTER  XXIX 
HARVESTING  AND  MARKETING 

Whether  intended  for  home  use  or  for  market  it  is  important 
that  vegetables  be  harvested  at  the  right  stage  of  maturity.  In 
many  vegetables  the  quality  or  yield  is  deficient  until  a  certain 
stage  of  development  is  reached;  and  after  passing  that  stage  the 
product  may  soon  become  objectionable  or  even  inedible  by  reason 
of  the  development  of  undesirable  texture  or  incipient  decay.  In 
the  case  of  some  vegetables,  the  period  during  which  they  are  in 
ideal  edible  condition  is  extremely  short  (from  one  to  four  days) 
while  in  others  this  period  is  very  much  longer  (from  one  to  four 
weeks  or  even  more).  Promptness  in  picking  is  therefore  much 
more  imperative  with  some  vegetables  than  with  others.  Exam- 
ples of  vegetables  in  which  given  specimens  remain  in  edible 
condition  only  a  short  time  are  radishes  (except  winter  varieties), 
green  peas,  string  beans,  sweet  corn,  cucumbers,  okra,  summer 
squash,  tomato,  muskmelon.  The  foliage  crops,  like  leaf  lettuce, 
spinach,  and  mustard,  in  which  the  entire  plant  is  gathered  at  the 
harvest,  are  edible  at  earlier  stages,  but  are  deficient  in  yield 
unless  allowed  to  attain  full  development.  Unless  harvested 
promptly  when  fully  developed,  they  quickly  run  to  seed.  Exam- 
ples of  vegetables  in  which  the  same  specimen  remains  in  edible 
condition  over  a  long  period  are  beets,  carrots,  rutabagas,  onions, 
leeks,  parsnips,  winter  squash. 

The  Harvesting  Period. — In  some  vegetables  the  entire  crop 
can  be  gathered  at  one  time,  as  in  the  case  of  late  cabbage,  celery, 
potatoes,  sweet  potatoes,  ripe  onions,  winter  squash,  and  the  late 
root  crops  intended  for  winter  use.  The  time  of  the  harvest  is 
governed  partly  by  the  maturity  of  the  crop,  but  in  many  cases 
fully  as  much  by  the  advancement  of  the  season  and  danger  of 
unfavorable  temperatures.  In  certain  other  crops  the  harvesting 
season  may  extend  over  a  long  period,  but  prompt  picking  of 
individual  specimens  be  essential.  This  is  particularly  true  of 
tomatoes,  eggplants,  cucumbers,  summer  squash,  melons,  and  okra. 

In  the  case  of  green  peas,  string  beans,  and  sweet  corn,  the 
harvesting  season  is  shorter,  but  several  pickings  are  often  neces- 
sary in  order  to  gather  the  entire  product  at  the  right  degree  of 
278 


PACKING  SHEDS  279 

maturity.  Several  pullings  are  also  necessary  to  harvest  a  crop 
of  early  radishes,  beets  or  carrots  in  the  best  stage  for  market 
or  table  use.  Plantations  of  early  cabbage,  cauliflower,  and  head 
lettuce  must  likewise  be  cut  over  a  number  of  times  in  order  to 
harvest  these  crops  in  ideal  condition,  since  not  all  the  plants  will 
develop  to  the  same  stage  at  the  same  time.  The  important  point 
is  that  the  gardener  must  know  when  a  given  product  has  reached 
its  optimum  condition,  and  how  long  it  will  remain  in  that  condi- 
tion, in  order  that  the  harvesting  may  be  done  at  the  proper  time. 
It  is  true  that  market  conditions  sometimes  warrant  a  departure 
from  the  normal  time  of  harvesting  a  given  product;  as,  for  exam- 
ple, when  prices  are  high  early  in  the  season,  it  may  pay  to  sacrifice 
somewhat  in  yield,  and  harvest  rhubarb,  leaf  lettuce,  spinach,  and 
even  early  cabbage  before  full  development  has  been  attained. 
Under  such  circumstances,  the  judgment  of  the  gardener  must 
determine  the  time  at  which  the  harvesting  will  be  done.  In  the 
home  garden,  it  is  often  customary  to  sacrifice  in  yield,  in  order 
to  secure  products  for  the  table  a  few  days  ahead  of  their  normal 
season  and  also  to  lengthen  the  season  during  which  a  given  pro- 
duct may  be  used. 

Care  of  Vegetables  between  Harvesting  and  Marketing. — 
After  vegetables  are  severed  from  the  plant  or  removed  from  the 
soil,  it  is  essential  in  the  case  of  quickly  perishable  products  that 
they  be  kept  as  cool  and  moist  as  circumstances  permit.  This 
means  that  they  must  not  be  exposed  to  direct  sunshine  or 
drying  winds  any  longer  than  is  absolutely  necessary  between  the 
time  they  are  gathered  and  the  time  they  reach  the  consumer's 
table;  and,  other  things  being  equal,  the  shorter  this  time  the 
more  desirable  the  quality  of  the  product.  Since  most  vegetables 
contain  a  high  percentage  of  water,  and  their  quality  bears  a  close 
relation  to  their  succulence,  evaporation  of  water  from  their 
tissues  is  likely  to  greatly  impair  their  quality.  Some  vegetables 
also  owe  their  characteristic  flavors  to  the  presence  of  sugars 
which  change  to  starch  after  the  vegetables  are  harvested. 
Such  vegetables  must  be  handled  very  promptly  from  garden  to 
consumer's  table  if  the  highest  quality  is  to  be  realized. 

PACKING   SHEDS 

The  keeping  of  vegetables  in  a  fresh  and  unwilted  condition 
between  harvesting  and  marketing  is"  facilitated  by  the  use  of  a 
packing  house  or  shed  to  which  the  products  are  taken  as  soon  as 


280 


HARVESTING  AND  MARKETING 


they  are  gathered.  Such  a  building  not  only  affords  protection 
from  sunshine  and  showers  to  the  vegetables,  the  supply  of  pack- 
ages and  the  workmen,  but  also  greatly  facilitates  the  handling 
of  the  crop  during  the  process  of  preparing  it  for  market.    While 


Fia.   1G7. — Simple  packing  shed,  with  curtain. 

Fig.   168. — A  convenient,  though  temporary,  packing  shed  for  melons  and  tomatoes. 


some  crops  may  be  advantageously  packed  or  loaded  for  market 
directly  from  the  field,  in  the  case  of  most  crops  which  require 
any  considerable  preparation  for  market,  the  work  can  be  handled 
much  more  expeditiously  in  a  building  arranged  for  the  purpose. 


PACKING  SHEDS  281 

The  permanence  of  the  structure  and  the  elaborateness  of  the 
equipment  will  depend  upon  its  location  and  the  kind  and  volume 
of  products  that  are  to  be  handled.  For  the  handling  of  certain 
crops,  a  temporary  shed  located  at  the  edge  of  the  field  is  all  that 
is  required.  Muskmelons  and  tomatoes  grown  as  truck  crops  in 
fields  at  considerable  distance  from  the  farm  buildings  are  usually 
packed  in  a  temporary  structure  built  for  the  purpose  just  before 
the  harvest  begins.  The  essential  features  of  such  a  structure 
are  a  packing  bench  or  table,  ample  light  and  a  roof  that  does  not 
leak.  It  may  or  may  not  be  boarded  up  at  the  back  and  sides. 
If  not  boarded  up,  it  is  usually  provided  with  a  curtain  which  may 
be  shifted  from  one  side  to  another  as  the  day  progresses.  Often 
a  canvas  wagon  cover  is  used  for  this  purpose.  One  of  the  simplest 
forms  of  packing  shed  is  shown  in  Fig.  1G7.  A  more  complete 
shed,  though  of  a  temporary  nature,  is  shown  in  Fig.  168.  A 
sectional  view  and  plan  of  the  latter  shed  are  presented  in  Fig.  169. 
Such  a  shed  may  be  built  of  any  length  desired,  depending  upon 
the  size  of  the  crop  to  be  handled.  The  one  here  illustrated  is 
twelve  by  sixteen  feet,  and  will  accommodate  three  packers  in 
handling  a  crop  of  melons  or  tomatoes.  There  is  also  sufficient 
space  for  stacking  two  wagonloads  of  the  packed  product. 

For  the  sake  of  economy  in  the  construction  of  a  shed  of  this 
kind,  the  posts  are  usually  cut  from  the  timber,  if  in  a  timber 
country,  so  that  a  comparatively  small  amount  of  sawed  lumber 
is  used  in  the  frame.  The  posts  are  set  deeply  in  the  ground  so 
that  they  will  retain  their  position  without  much  bracing. 

For  the  construction  of  the  shed  here  illustrated,  besides 
nine  long  posts  for  supporting  the  roof  and  twelve  short  ones 
for  the  table  and  bench,  the  following  bill  of  lumber  would  be 
needed : 

4  ps.  2"  x  4",  12  ft.,  for  supporting  roof. 
4  ps.  2"  x  4",  4'  8",  for  supporting  packing  table. 
4  ps.  2"  x  4",  2'  4",  for  supporting  receiving  bench. 
24  boards  1"  x  12",  12  ft.,  for  roof,  laid  with  3-inch  lap. 
6  boards  1"  x  12",  12  ft.,  for  packing  table  and  receiving  bench. 
6  boards  1"  x  12",  12  ft.,  for  boarding  up  south  side. 

1  board    1"  x  12",  12  ft.,  for  partitions  in  packing  table. 

2  boards  1"  x  6",  12  ft.,  for  sorting  and  packing  shelves. 

1  board    1"  x  6",  12  ft.,  for  front  wall  of  table. 

2  boards  1"  x  6",  6  ft.,  for  bracing  ridgepole. 

The  short  two-by-four's  for  supporting  the  packing  table  and 
receiving  bench  could  be  sawed  from  two  pieces  each  fourteen 


282 


HARVESTING  AND  MARKETING 


Fia.    169. — Sectional  view  and  plan  of  packing  shed  shown  in  Fig. 


PACKING  SHEDS  283 

feet  long.    A  summary  of  the  bill  of  lumber  would  therefore  be  as 

follows : 

4  ps.  2"  x    4",  12  ft 32  board  feet 

2  ps.  2"  x    4",  14  ft 19  board  feet 

37  ps.  1 "  x  12",  12  ft 444  board  feet 

4  ps.  1"  x    6",  12  ft 24  board  feet 

Total 519  board  feet 

At  $60.00  per  M.  this  lumber  would  cost  $31.14.  This  is  a 
larger  amount  than  is  usually  expended  for  material  in  the  con- 
struction of  a  temporary  shed;  and  if  other  sides  were  boarded  up, 
the  amount  would  be  still  greater.  This  type  of  shed  is  better 
suited  to  a  location  at  the  intersection  of  the  boundaries  of  three 
or  four  fields  which  are  to  be  used  successively  for  the  growing  of 
melons  or  tomatoes,  than  to  an  isolated  field  where  they  are  to 
be  grown  only  one  season.  For  the  last-named  situation  it  is 
probable  that  a  shed  like  the  one  shown  in  Fig.  167  would  be 
preferable.  The  lumber  used  in  the  construction  of  that  par- 
ticular shed  was  as  follows: 

3  ps.  2"  x  4",  12  ft.,  for  supporting  roof. 
3  ps.  2"  x  4",  5  ft.,  for  supporting  table. 
16  boards  1"  x  12",  12  ft.,  for  roof. 

3  boards  1"  x  12",  12  ft.,  for  table. 

1  board    1"  x  10",  12  ft.,  for  back  wall  of  table. 

4  boards  1"  x  6",  12  ft.,  for  shelves,  front  wall  and  partitions  of  table. 

This  lumber  amounts  to  a  total  of  296  feet.  At  $60.00  per  M. 
it  would  cost  $17.76.* 

For  handling  vegetables  which  need  washing  during  their 
preparation  for  market,  an  ample  water  supply  at  the  packing 
shed  is  essential.  For  this  reason,  a  shed  intended  for  the  handling 
of  a  general  assortment  of  vegetables  is  usually  located  near  the 
other  farm  buildings  rather  than  near  the  field,  and  is  provided 
with  tanks,  tubs,  and  washing  tables,  as  well  as  being  connected 
with  a  supply  of  water,  preferably  under  pressure.  Provision 
must  also  be  made  for  rapid  and  complete  disposal  of  the  waste 
water.  Such  arrangements  demand  that  the  packing  shed  or 
house  be  of  a  more  permanent  nature  than  the  field  packing 
sheds  already  mentioned.  Also,  for  the  handling  of  vegetables 
in  winter,  such  as  celery  and  the  root  crops,  it  is  important  that 

*  The  specifications  and  diagrams  of  packing  sheds  presented  here,  as 
well  as  certain  other  portions  of  the  present  chapter,  have  been  taken  from 
Bulletin  124  of  the  Illinois  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


284  HARVESTING  AND  MARKETING 

the  structure  be  warmly  built  and  provision  made  for  artificial 
heating  if  desired,  so  that  the  workmen  may  be  comfortable 
even  on  cold  days.  Some  convenient  vehicle  should  be  used  to 
haul  vegetables  from  the  field  to  the  packing  shed  (Fig.  170). 

PREPARATION  OF  VEGETABLES  FOR  MARKET 

Few  vegetables  are  ready  for  market  without  some  special 
preparation  after  they  are  gathered  from  the  field.  It  is  true  that 
certain  of  the  coarser  vegetables  are  sometimes  loaded  into  a 
wagon  in  bulk  to  be  hauled  to  the  local  market  or  transferred  to 


Fio.  170. — Type  of  cart  used  by  Boston  gardeners  for  transporting 
vegetables  from  field  to  packing  shed. 

cars  where  they  are  likewise  loaded  in  bulk.  This  applies  to 
watermelons,  winter  squash,  late  cabbage,  and  sometimes  also  to 
potatoes,  rutabagas,  and  even  onions.  However,  most  vegetables 
are  usually  placed  in  some  sort  of  receptacle  for  hauling  or  ship- 
ping to  market. 

Packages. — The  receptacles  or  packages  used  for  vegetables 
are  of  many  different  kinds,  the  particular  kind  to  be  used  in  a 
given  case  depending  partly  upon  the  nature  of  the  product  to 


PACKAGES  285 

be  transported,  but  often  fully  as  much  upon  the  custom  of  the 
locality  or  recognized  standards  of  the  market.  Usually  a  package 
for  hauling  vegetables  to  a  local  market  is  heavier  and  more  durable 
than  one  used  for  distant  shipments,  since  transportation  charges 
are  not  involved,  and  it  is  the  expectation  that  the  same  package 
will  be  used  repeatedly;  for  in  such  a  market  the  package  is  usually 
not  included  in  the  sale  of  the  contents.  In  local  markets  the 
same  kind  of  package  is  used  for  a  great  variety  of  products.  In 
some  local  markets  the  bushel  basket  is  the  usual  package  for  a 
large  variety  of  products,  in  others  a  "  bushel  "  box  of  certain 


Fig.  171. — Boston  market  gardener's  load  of  vegetable  boxes. 

dimensions,  and  in  still  others  the  U.  S.  Standard  three- 
bushel  barrel.  In  all  cases  the  wagons  of  the  progressive  gardeners 
are  built  of  such  dimensions,  or  equipped  with  such  staging,  as 
to  facilitate  the  building  up  of  large  loads  of  the  type  of  package 
in  common  use  in  the  locality  (Fig.  171).  One  of  the  principal 
reasons  for  using  the  same  kind  of  package  for  so  many  products 
is  that  it  enables  the  general  market  gardener  to  transport  a  mixed 
load  to  advantage. 

In  trucking  regions  where  vegetables  are  grown  for  shipment 


286 


HARVESTING  AND  MARKETING 


to  distant  markets,  a  much  smaller  number  of  different  crops  is 
likely  to  be  handled  in  the  same  load.  In  fact,  each  shipment  is 
likely  to  consist  of  only  one  kind  of  vegetable,  and  there  is  usually 
a  recognized  standard  package  in  a  given  market  for  each  kind 
of  vegetable  shipped  from  a  given  locality. 

In  shipping  vegetables  to  the  large  city  markets  it  is  essential 
that  standard  packages  be  used,  for  the  products  do  not  sell  as 
well  in  packages  other  than  those  to  which  the  market  is  accus- 
tomed. Barrels,  baskets,  hampers  and  crates  of  various,  sizes  and 
shapes  are  employed  for  different  products  and  different  markets. 
For  the  most  part  packages  are  well  adapted  to  transporting  and  dis- 
playing the  products  for  which 
they  are  used.  They  are  neat 
in  appearance  and  as  light  as 
the  nature  of  the  product  will 
permit.  The  more  delicate  and 
easily  injured  the  product,  the 
smaller,  and  especially  shal- 
lower, should  be  the  package. 
Thus,  a  suitable  package  for 
ripe  tomatoes  is  so  shallow  that 
the  specimens  can  be  placed 
only  two  layers  deep.  On  the 
other  hand,  onions  or  potatoes 
can  be  shipped  in  barrels  or 
sacks. 

Packages  used  for  shipping 
green  vegetables  in  hot  weather 
must  be  provided  with  plenty  of 
ventilation.  They  are  usually 
constructed  quite  largely  of  veneer  strips,  with  ample  spaces 
between,  which  serve  the  double  purpose  of  ventilation  and  means 
for  displaying  the  contents  without  the  removal  of  the  cover 
(Fig.  172).  The  methods  of  packing  employed  take  this  factor 
into  account,  and  involve  careful  placing  of  the  specimens  with 
reference  to  the  openings  in  the  packages,  so  that  a  neat  and 
attractive  appearance  will  be  secured.  This  applies  with  particular 
force  to  tomatoes,  string  beans,  muskmelons,  okra,  and  other 
vegetables  that  are  normally  shipped  in  packages  with  quite  wide 
openings  at  certain  places. 

Washing  and  Bunching. — Whether  intended  for  local  or  distant 


Fig.  172. — The  slatted  covers  of  melon 
baskets  insure  thorough  ventilation,  and  also 
display  the  contents  of  the  package  to  good 
advantage. 


WASHING  AND  BUNCHING  287 

market,  most  vegetables  must  be  free  from  dirt  or  other  stains 
at  the  time  they  are  packed.  In  the  case  of  vegetables  that  have 
been  pulled  or  dug  from  the  soil,  like  root  crops  and  celery,  or 
cut  from  close  to  the  surface  of  the  ground,  like  spinach,  lettuce 
and  asparagus,  washing  with  water  is  usually  a  necessary  step  in 
the  preparation  of  the  products  for  market.  In  muddy  weather, 
tomatoes,  melons,  cucumbers,  and  eggplants  may  sometimes  be 
washed,  though  the  usual  custom  is  to  merely  wipe  them  off 
with  a  moist  cloth.     Root  crops  and  celery   grown   in    sandy 


Fig.  173. — Bunch  of  young  beets,  as  marketed. 


soil  are  much  more  easily   washed   than  those   grown    in    the 
heavier  types  of  soil. 

Certain  vegetables  are  usually  tied  in  bunches  when  sent  to 
market.  This  is  true  of  all  root  crops  early  in  the  season,  radishes 
(except  the  winter  type)  at  all  seasons,  green  onions,  asparagus, 
rhubarb,  kohlrabi,  parsley,  leeks,  celery,  and  sometimes  leaf  lettuce 
and  various  other  products  (Fig.  173).  Root  crops  may  be  washed 
either  before  or  after  bunching,  but  can  usually  be  more  expedi- 
tiously handled  if  bunched  before  the  washing.    Materials  used  in 


288  HARVESTING  AND  MARKETING 

bunching  are  string,  raffia,  tape,  and  rubber  bands.  The  rubber 
bands  are  especially  useful  in  the  bunching  of  asparagus. 

Grading. — The  different  specimens  in  a  crop,  and  even  in  a 
single  picking  or  pulling,  are  likely  to  differ  widely  in  size,  shape 
and  degree  of  perfection.  If  these  widely  differing  specimens  are 
placed  indiscriminately  into  the  same  bunch  or  package,  the 
smallest,  most  misshapen  and  altogether  most  undesirable  speci- 
mens appear  most  prominently  when  subjected  to  the  scrutiny  of 
the  prospective  buyer.  In  fact,  one  or  two  markedly  inferior 
specimens  will  sometimes  ruin  the  sale  of  the  entire  lot.  Fairly 
good  specimens  appear  decidedly  common  when  in  company  with 
others  that  are  superior;  they  sell  better  in  separate  packages. 
Therefore,  grading  is  essential  in  the  case  of  nearly  all  vegetables 
in  which  there  are  conspicuous  differences  in  the  size,  shape,  color, 
or  degree  of  perfection  of  the  various  specimens.  The  greater 
the  differences,  the  larger  the  number  of  grades  which  should  be 
made.  Usually  it  will  be  found  advisable  to  make  at  least  two 
grades  for  market,  besides  the  culls  that  are  discarded.  When  the 
market  is  high  or  vegetables  are  scarce,  a  much  larger  number  may 
sometimes  be  made,  as  in  the  case  of  greenhouse  cucumbers,  of 
which  as  many  as  six  distinct  grades  are  sometimes  made. 

The  grading  of  tomatoes  will  serve  to  illustrate  the  principles 
involved  in  the  grading  of  vegetables  in  general  and  indicate  the 
kinds  of  differences  that  may  determine  the  grade  of  different 
specimens. 

Tomatoes  should  be  graded  before  they  are  sent  to  market. 
Much  of  the  dissatisfaction  with  tomatoes  on  the  market,  and  much 
loss  in  the  hands  of  the  retailers,  are  due  to  the  fact  that  many 
tomatoes  are  sent  to  market  which  should  never  have  left  the 
premises  of  the  grower.  This  applies  particularly  to  specimens 
which  are  so  badly  cracked  that  the  juice  oozes  from  them  before 
they  reach  the  market.  One  leaking  tomato  in  a  crate  is  likely 
to  ruin  the  sale  of  the  entire  package,  for  if  it  leaks  enough  to  be 
detected,  the  crate  is  designated  as  a  "  leaker  "  and  is  sold  at  a 
decided  discount.  Rough  or  over-ripe  specimens  or  those  of  very 
small  size  are  almost  as  objectionable,  for  they  spoil  the  sale  of 
good  specimens  if  placed  in  the  same  package,  and  if  packed  alone 
they  often  fail  to  bring  enough  on  the  market  to  pay  for  the  ex- 
penses of  marketing. 

In  grading  tomatoes,  then,  all  badly  cracked,  rough,  over- 
ripe, or  under-sized  specimens  should  be  discarded  as  culls.    The 


GRADING  289 

salable  tomatoes  are  usually  put  in  one  grade,  but  for  discriminating 
markets  better  results  would  be  secured  if  two  grades  were  made. 
There  is  a  distinct  demand  for  sound,  smooth  tomatoes,  regular  in 
shape,  free  from  cracks,  and  of  such  a  size  that  twelve  specimens 
fill  one  basket  of  a  "  fiat  "  or  four-basket  crate.  Tomatoes  of 
this  character  should  be  marketed  in  a  grade  by  themselves,  and 
may  be  designated  No.  1  or  fancy.  Sound  specimens,  slightly 
inferior  to  the  above  in  size  or  smoothness,  or  with  slight  cracks 
about  the  stem,  which  have  healed  over  so  that  there  is  no  danger 
of  their  leaking,  may  be  graded  as  No.  2.  Tomatoes  which  are 
so  small  that  over  twenty  specimens  would  be  required  to  pack  a 
basket  are  not  in  demand  on  the  market. 

If  the  tomatoes  are  not  uniform  in  ripeness,  each  grade  should 
be  further  sorted,  on  the  basis  of  color,  and  only  tomatoes  uniform 
in  maturity  packed  in  the  same  crate. 

The  grading  of  tomatoes,  as  well  as  the  wiping  (when  necessary), 
is  usually  done  as  the  fruits  are  being  transferred  from  the  picking 
baskets  or  field  boxes  to  the  packing  table.* 

The  importance  of  grading  is  even  more  forcibly  illustrated 
in  the  case  of  muskmelons,  for  there  are  marked  differences  in 
quality  and  flavor  as  well  as  in  size  and  appearance.  Extremely 
high  quality  and  uniformity  in  size  and  condition  are  essential  in 
making  of  a  fancy  grade.  The  size  must  also  be  normal  and  the 
packing  perfect.  The  No.  1  grade  should  be  of  nearly  as  high 
quality  as  the  fancy  grade,  but  may  include  odd  sizes,  though  the 
different  specimens  in  a  given  package  should  be  fairly  uniform  in 
size.  This  grade  may  include  melons  too  large  or  too  small  for 
the  fancy  grade.  The  No.  2  grade  should  consist  of  the  balance 
of  the  salable  melons. 

In  varieties  of  melons  which  are  normally  well  netted,  there 
is  a  close  relation  between  the  amount  and  character  of  netting 
and  the  quality  of  the  melon,  so  that,  after  a  little  experience,  it 
is  possible  to  grade  melons  with  extreme  accuracy  as  to  quality, 
on  the  basis  of  netting.  As  a  rule,  the  denser  and  more  fully  de- 
veloped the  netting,  the  better  the  quality  of  the  melon.  The 
netting  should  stand  out  like  whip-cords  on  melons  graded  as 
fancy  stock.  Well-netted  melons,  in  which  the  netting  is  not 
quite  so  prominent,  together  with  off  sizes  of  the  best  netted  melons, 
may  be  graded  as  No.  1.  Specimens  with  still  less  netting,  but  in 
which  the  netting  is  fairly  well  developed,  may  be  graded  as  No.  2. 

*  See  also  Bulletin  144  of  the  Illinois  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 
19 


290 


HARVESTING  AND  MARKETING 


Fia.   174.— Fancy  melon  above;  No.  1  melon  below. 


GRADING 


291 


..,;,->  •»■-*   ;  .v.  ^ 


Fig.  175. — No.  2  melon  above;  cull  melon  below 


292 


HARVESTING  AND  MARKETING 


The  extent  to  which  the  netting  is  developed  is  more  important 
than  the  absolute  amount  of  netting  in  determining  whether  a 
given  specimen  shall  be  graded  as  a  No.  2  or  a  cull.  Melons  in 
which  the  netting  is  very  poorly  developed,  as  well  as  those  without 
any  netting,  should  be  classed  as  culls.  Cracked  or  over-ripe 
specimens  must  be  graded  as  culls  even  though  of  fine  quality, 
for  they  would  be  likely  to  spoil  before  reaching  the  consumer. 
Gem  melons  having  the  characteristic  netting  of  the  four  grades 
above  mentioned  are  illustrated  in  Figs.  174  and  175. 

Packing. — The  subject  of  packages  has  already  been  discussed. 
From  a  market  standpoint,  the  proper  placing  of  the  specimens 
in  the  package  is  fully  as  important  as  the  use  of  the  right  kind 


Fig.    176.— Flats  of  fi 


of  package,  for,  unless  properly  packed,  vegetables  shipped  to 
distant  markets  are  likely  to  arrive  in  deplorable  condition.  In 
the  first  place,  the  vegetables  must  be  cool  when  placed  in  the 
packages,  so  that  the  danger  of  heating  in  transit  will  be  reduced 
as  much  as  possible.  As  already  mentioned,  the  packages  used  in 
hot  weather  should  be  provided  with  ample  ventilation.  In  the 
case  of  products  in  which  the  individual  specimens  are  large  and 
easily  subject  to  injury,  each  specimen  should  be  so  placed  in 
the  package  that  it  will  remain  in  its  exact  position  until  the 
package  reaches  the  market.  This  state  of  affairs  can  be  secured 
only  by  placing  each  specimen  by  hand  and  packing  firmly,  yet 
not  so  tightly  that  any  of  the  specimens  will  be  bruised.  In  the 
case  of  products  in  which  the  individual  specimens  are  smaller 


PACKING 


293 


and  less  subject  to  injury  and  for  which  a  package  of  con- 
siderable depth  is  used,  it  may  suffice  if  only  the  specimens 
forming  the  surface  layer  of  the  package  are  placed  by  hand. 
This  is  true  of  string  beans  and  okra  packed  in  climax  baskets 
or  bushel  boxes. 

Firmness  is  not  the  only  essential  in  good  packing.  The 
arrangement  of  the  specimens  in  the  package  must  be  such  that 
the  package  and  its  contents  will  present  an  attractive  appearance 
when  displayed  on  the  market.  This  means  that  the  specimens 
must  be  arranged  in  a  systematic  and  orderly  manner,  with  the 
same  part  of  each  specimen  in  the  same  relative  position  in  refer- 
ence to  the  side  or  top  of  the  package;  and  the  custom  of  the 
market  usually  dictates  what  particular  part  of  the  vegetable 


e  specimens  properly  arranged  for  their  respective  sizes. 


shall  appear  uppermost.  For  example,  No.  1  or  fancy  tomatoes 
packed  in  the  standard  four-basket  flat  are  invariably  placed 
with  the  blossom  end  uppermost  (Fig.  176),  and  muskmelons 
packed  in  crates  or  baskets  are  so  placed  that  the  ribs  of  the  melon 
extend  lengthwise  of  the  package  (Fig.  177).  String  beans  in 
climax  baskets  have  the  top  layer  of  pods  laid  straight  across  the 
package,  so  that  they  appear  in  regular  order  as  seen  through  the 
crack  between  the  slats  of  the  cover.  There  is  a  definite,  recog- 
nized standard  way  of  packing  nearly  every  kind  of  vegetable 
that  is  shipped  to  market,  and  failure  to  conform  to  this  method 
of  packing  usually  results  in  unfavorable  discrimination  on  the 
market.  However,  the  methods  of  packing  are  different  for 
different  markets,  so  that  the  custom  of  the  given  market  that  is 


294  HARVESTING  AND  MARKETING 

to  be  supplied  must  be  known  by  the  shipper  if  he  is  to  obtain 
full  value  of  his  products. 

The  differences  in  customs  of  individual  markets  extend  to 
even  smaller  details  than  the  kind  of  package  and  arrangement  of 
specimens  in  the  package.  In  some  markets,  radishes  in  bunches 
are  sold  with  the  roots  on;  in  other  markets,  the  tap-roots  of  turnip 
radishes  are  cut  off.  In  some  markets  green  onions  are  sold  with 
the  roots  on,  in  others  with  the  roots  off.  The  amount  of  top  left 
on  green  onions  also  differs  greatly  in  different  markets,  in  some 
the  entire  top  being  left  on.  Rhubarb  likewise  is  sold  in  different 
markets  with  different  amounts  of  the  leaf  remaining  on  the  stalk, 
but  always  the  same  amount  in  the  same  market.  For  some 
markets,  bunch  beets  are  always  washed,  for  others  they  are  not. 
In  all  these  details,  the  grower  must  conform  to  the  custom  of  the 
given  market  if  he  wishes  to  sell  his  products  to  the  best  advantage. 

SELLING   THE    CROP 

As  mentioned  in  Chapter  I,  there  are  two  distinct  kinds  of 
market,  local  and  distant.  The  local  market  may  be  a  street  or 
stall  market  to  which  the  various  growers  haul  their  wagons 
laden  with  produce  and  sell  at  wholesale  to  retail  dealers  or  at 
retail  to  individual  consumers.  Such  markets  are  organized  and 
operated  in  most  American  cities  of  any  considerable  size. 

Local  Produce  Markets.  —  A  good  example  of  a  thoroughly 
organized  street  market  is  that  on  West  Randolph  Street,  Chicago. 
For  a  distance  of  five  blocks  the  street  is  about  double  the  width 
of  an  ordinary  street,  and  is  set  apart  for  the  use  of  the  market 
gardeners  in  selling  their  products.  The  gardeners'  wagons  and 
auto  trucks  are  placed  as  close  as  possible  to  the  street  car  tracks 
which  occupy  the  centre  of  the  street.  The  teams  are  removed 
from  the  wagons.  Sales  are  made  from  the  rear  of  the  wagons  and 
trucks.  Produce  is  hauled  to  this  market  from  a  distance  of  ten 
to  eighteen  miles.  Gardeners  with  teams  sometimes  start 
from  home  early  in  the  afternoon  and  get  their  wagons  placed 
by  five  o'clock.  Trucks  usually  drive  in  during  the  night. 
Nobody  holds  the  same  place  for  the  season.  .  Each  one 
gets  the  best  position  he  can  find  each  day.  Business  begins 
about  3:  00  a.m.  and  all  vehicles  must  be  off  the  market  by  1:  00 
p.m.,  so  that  the  city  can  clean  the  street  of  all  refuse.  This  market 
is  both  wholesale  and  retail;  any  grower  will  sell  in  any  quantity 
to  suit  the  purchaser.    Wholesale  dealers,  grocers,  peddlers,  and 


SELLING  THE  CROP 


295 


ultimate  consumers  are  all  purchasers  on  this  market.  Packages 
are  not  furnished  with  the  purchases.  The  price  for  his  products 
is  named  by  the  grower,  and  varies  greatly  from  day  to  day.  It  is 
influenced  by  the  amount  of  the  particular  product  on  that  market, 
and  also  the  amount  on  South  Water  Street,  shipped  in  from  other 
points.  The  grower  holds  to  his  price  if  conditions  warrant,  but 
when  the  market  is  over-supplied  will  accept  lower  offers  if  neces- 
sary to  effect  sales,  rather  than  be  obliged  to  haul  home  part  of 
his  load. 

Conditions  are  much  the  same  in  the  Buffalo  produce  market, 
except  that  an  entire  block,  instead  of  a  street,  is  reserved  for  the 
market,  and  that  a  definite  space  in  the  block  is  rented  by  each 


Fig.  178. — Partial  view  of  "Eastern  Market,"  Detroit,  Michigan,  where  enormous 
quantities  of  produce  are  sold  by  growers.     Good  example  of  a  local  market. 


gardener  at  the  height  of  the  season.  The  entire  block  is  paved, 
and  raised  flag-stone  walks  are  placed  at  certain  intervals.  The 
wagons  are  backed  up  along  both  sides  of  these  walks,  so  that 
the  prospective  purchasers  can  easily  examine  the  products. 
This  is  essentially  a  wholesale  market,  though  retailing  is  done 
on  one  "  row." 

A  view  of  a  Detroit,  Michigan,  market  is  shown  in  Fig.  178. 

In  greater  New  York  there  are  at  least  four  open  street  markets, 
to  which  the  growers  bring  their  produce  and  sell  it  from  their 
wagons.  These  markets  are  open  blocks,  paved,  with  raised  stone 
walks,  as  in  Buffalo. 

In  Philadelphia,   Baltimore,   and  Washington,  stall  markets 


296 


HARVESTING  AND  MARKETING 


predominate.  They  are  usually  in  buildings  owned  by  some 
company  which  rents  the  stalls  to  growers  or  dealers.  A  good 
example  of  this  type  of  market  is  the  Ridge  Avenue  Market  in 
Philadelphia.  Here  a  stall  about  twelve  feet  wide  rents  for  $80 
a  year.  The  growers  haul  in  their  produce  twice  a  week  (Tuesdays 
and  Fridays),  at  noon,  and  remain  until  noon  of  the  next  day. 
Produce  is  sold  at  both  wholesale  and  retail  from  the  same  stall. 
In  Baltimore  there  are  about  ten  retail  stall  markets,  with  "  market 
days,"  Tuesday,  Friday,  and  especially  Saturday,  lasting  until 
late  Saturday  night.  The  upper  class  of  customers  do  their  mar- 
keting in  the  morning,  the  middle  class  in  the  afternoon,  and  the 


Fia.   179. — Four  loads  of  vegetables  for  a  single  day's  marketing  from  one  garden  near 
Peoria.  Illinois. 


lower  class  Saturday  night.  Hucksters  buy  everything  that  re- 
mains after  the  retail  trade  for  the  evening  is  over,  so  that  nothing 
has  to  be  hauled  home  by  the  growers. 

Sometimes  a  street  and  stall  market  is  combined  under  one 
supervision.  This  is  true  of  the  market  in  Peoria,  Illinois  (Fig.  179). 
A  street  market  is  usually  supervised  by  a  "market  master"  or 
"market  manager."  In  the  case  of  a  municipal  market,  this 
official  is  usually  appointed  by  the  mayor.  He  has  police  power, 
and  in  addition  to  collecting  fees,  he  preserves  order.  Fees  on  the 
Randolph  Street  Market,  Chicago,  are  fifteen  cents  per  day  for 
single  wagons  and  twenty-five  cents  for  large  wagons  or  trucks. 

In  smaller  towns  or  where  there  is  no  organized  market,  the 


EXPRESS  SHIPMENTS  TO  SMALL  CITIES  297 

grower  may  drive  around  to  the  various  retail  stores  and  offer  his 
products,  or  he  may  offer  his  goods  from  house  to  house  in  the 
residence  districts.  In  either  case,  a  regular  trade  can  be  estab- 
lished by  furnishing  choice  products,  and  making  deliveries  at 
stated  intervals,  either  every  day  or  three  times  a  week.  Usually, 
at  each  delivery,  orders  may  be  taken  for  the  next  delivery.  Often 
a  very  satisfactory  business  in  fresh  vegetables  can  be  established 
in  even  a  small  town  by  an  enterprising  gardener  located  near  its 
borders. 

A  vegetable  grower  who  is  located  within  driving  distance 
from  his  market,  so  that  he  hauls  his  products  directly  to  the  market 
in  his  own  wagons  and  pays  a  personal  visit  to  the  market  every 
time  he  has  goods  to  offer,  has  a  distinct  advantage  over  a  grower 
located  a  distance  from  his  market,  in  that  he  can  learn  at  first 
hand  the  demands  of  the  particular  market  in  reference  to  types 
of  products  and  styles  of  packing,  as  well  as  keeping  in  daily 
touch  with  changes  in  market  conditions,  and  demands  for  partic- 
ular products. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  early  market  must  be  supplied  almost 
exclusively  with  vegetables  shipped  from  a  distance  by  growers 
who  seldom  or  never  visit  the  market.  Such  growers  must  keep 
themselves  advised  by  other  means  regarding  market  demands 
and  conditions. 

Shipping  to  Distant  Markets. — Under  existing  conditions  there 
are  four  general  methods  of  marketing  vegetables  open  to  the 
grower  who  is  located  at  a  distance  from  his  market:  Shipping 
by  express  to  commission  men  or  retail  dealers  in  the  small  cities; 
shipping  by  freight  to  commission  men  in  large  cities,  selling 
f.o.b.  shipping  point  either  to  local  buyers  or  to  representatives  of 
city  firms,  and  selling  through  a  growers '  cooperative  organization. 

Express  Shipments  to  Small  Cities. — Each  of  these  methods 
has  certain  advantages,  and  any  one  may  be  superior  to  the  others 
for  a  given  grower,  depending  upon  circumstances.  If  the  grower 
is  located  where  vegetables  are  not  extensively  grown  for  ship- 
ment, he  must,  perforce,  ship  by  express  or  parcel  post,  since  there 
will  be  no  facilities  for  the  handling  of  perishable  goods  by  freight. 
In  that  case  he  will  usually  ship  to  the  smaller  cities,  and  try  to 
deal  directly  with  a  retailer.  Usually  vegetables  consigned  to 
commission  men  in  the  smaller  cities  do  not  sell  for  as  high  prices 
early  in  the  season  as  those  consigned  to  the  large  markets,  but 
there  is  usually  less  fluctuation  in  price  through  the  season,  so 


298  HARVESTING  AND  MARKETING 

that  the  average  price  received  for  the  crop  will  be  fully  as  great 
in  a  small  market  as  in  a  large  one.  This  is  assuming  that  the 
small  market  would  be  able  to  handle  the  entire  product,  which 
is  often  not  the  case.  The  greatest  objection  to  the  small  market 
is  the  ease  with  which  it  is  overstocked.  The  prices  may  not 
drop  as  low  as  in  a  large  market,  but  the  goods  simply  cannot  be 
moved.  When  the  product  from  slightly  southern  points  becomes 
abundant,  the  smaller  cities  to  the  north,  which  may  have  been 
taking  the  earlier  shipments  at  satisfactory  prices,  begin  to  be 
supplied  with  home-grown  stock,  and  when  this  becomes  plentiful 
the  stock  shipped  in  from  other  points  is  usually  not  wanted  at 
any  price.  The  grower  who  has  been  depending  upon  this  kind  of 
a  market  then  suddenly  finds  himself  confronted  with  the  problem 
of  seeking  another  outlet  for  his  goods. 

Another  serious  defect  in  the  wholesale  markets  handling 
goods  on  consignment  in  the  smaller  cities  is  that  no  premium  is 
placed  upon  superior  goods,  No.  2  and  ungraded  stock  usually 
bringing  the  same  price  as  a  strictly  fancy  article.  There  is  no 
incentive  to  proper  grading  and  packing  for  such  a  market. 

The  most  satisfactory  way  of  supplying  vegetables  to  the 
markets  of  the  smaller  cities  is  to  arrange  with  one  high-class 
retailer  in  each  city  to  handle  a  certain  number  of  packages  of  a 
given  product  each  day  through  the  shipping  season.  In  this  case 
each  shipment  is  usually  billed  out  at  a  price  set  by  the  grower 
rather  than  the  dealer.  In  this  way  it  is  often  possible  to  build 
up  a  very  satisfactory  trade  in  high-grade  products.  The  most 
serious  drawback  to  this  method  of  marketing  is  the  impossibility 
of  determining  the  number  of  packages  that  can  be  furnished  per 
day,  and  hence  the  necessity  of  limiting  orders  to  the  supply 
that  can  normally  be  furnished.  This  makes  it  necessary  to  find 
some  other  way  of  marketing  part  of  the  crop  when  the  yields 
are  heavy.  The  surplus  is  usually  consigned  to  some  commission 
man  located  in  a  small  city  other  than  those  in  which  a  retail 
dealer  is  being  supplied. 

Consigning  to  Large  Cities. — Since  transportation  by  express 
is  always  expensive,  most  growers  located  at  points  where  vege- 
tables are  shipped  in  quantity  send  their  goods  by  freight  to  a 
large  city  market  rather  than  express  them  to  smaller  markets. 
At  each  shipping  point  there  is  usually  an  organization  of  the 
growers,  which  makes  possible  the  securing  of  better  railway  rates 
and  accommodations  than  would  be  the  case  where  the  growers 


CONSIGNING  TO  LARGE  CITIES  299 

are  working  independently,  and  provides  for  the  loading  of  the 
cars  and  other  matters  connected  with  the  shipping  of  the  goods 
(Fig.  180).  These  are  the  chief  functions  of  the  organization  as 
operated  at  many  shipping  points,  for  the  interests  of  the  various 
growers  are  not  pooled.  Each  grower  consigns  his  products  to 
any  commission  house  he  may  select  in  the  city  to  which  cars 
are  being  shipped.  Each  lot  of  vegetables  retains  its  identity 
upon  the  market,  and  returns  are  made  directly  to  each  grower 


Fig.    ISO. — Muskmelon  growers  at  Alma,  Illinois,  waiting  their  turns 
to  load  their  melons  for  shipment. 

for  his  own  goods.  The  grower  is  thus  directly  dependent  upon 
his  own  commission  man  for  the  prices  he  will  receive. 

The  prices  secured  by  different  commission  men  on  the  same 
market  the  same  day  differ  widely.  Some  growers  change  com- 
mission men  frequently  in  the  hope  of  securing  higher  prices;  but 
such  results  seldom  follow,  especially  when  the  market  is  well 
supplied,  for  at  such  a  time  any  good  commission  man  will  first 
take  care  of  the  produce  from  his  regular  shippers,  and  sacrifice, 
if  necessary,  that  received  from  spasmodic  shippers. 

Other  growers  divide  each  day's  shipment  among  two  or  three 


300  HARVESTING  AND  MARKETING 

firms  in  the  hope  of  getting  high  prices  for  part  of  the  goods  each 
day.  The  proportion  shipped  to  each  man  on  a  given  day  is 
usually  determined  by  his  latest  returns,  and  the  man  who  secured 
the  best  prices  one  day  may  secure  the  lowest  three  days  later, 
so  that  on  the  entire  season's  business  little  or  nothing  is  gained  by 
dividing  shipments,  and  often  much  is  lost.  The  safest  plan  to 
follow  in  shipping  to  a  large  city  market  is  for  the  grower  to  make 
arrangements  with  some  trustworthy  commission  firm  to  handle 
his  entire  product.  This  should  be  done  before  the  shipping 
season  begins.     If  the  grower  can  visit  the  market  and  talk  per- 


Fig.  181. — Packing  shed  for  cantaloupes  at  railway  siding  near 
Rocky  Ford,  Colorado.  The  product  of  200  acres  was  packed  under 
the  supervision  of  one  man  in  this  shed. 

sonally  with  his  commission  man,  much  will  be  gained.  There 
should  be  a  specific  understanding  between  the  grower  and  the 
commission  man  regarding  the  grading  and  packing  of  the  prod- 
ucts and  the  meaning  of  the  different  brands  to  be  used  on  the 
packages,  so  that  the  salesman  may  know  with  absolute  certainty 
the  exact  character  of  the  goods  contained  in  a  given  package. 
This  will  enable  him  to  place  the  different  grades  with  the  different 
classes  of  trade,  and  thus  realize  for  the  grower  the  largest  possible 
proceeds  from  the  entire  product. 


CONSIGNING  TO  LARGE  CITIES  301 

If  this  method  is  followed,  and  the  same  grades  of  each  product 
are  shipped  under  the  same  brands  to  the  same  firm,  year  after 
year,  the  reputation  of  the  goods  will  soon  be  established,  and 
there  will  be  a  distinct  demand  for  them  at  prices  considerably 
in  advance  of  those  received  for  the  same  kind  of  goods  shipped 
indiscriminately  to  various  dealers. 

The  method  of  marketing  just  described,  that  of  each  individual 
grower  consigning  his  products  to  a  commission  man  of  his  own 
selection,  but  shipping  in  the  same  car  with  other  growers  (the 
car  being  loaded  under  the  supervision  of  a  shipping  association), 


Fig.  182. — Loading  platform  of  Rocky  Ford  Cantaloupe  Grow- 
ers' Association,  where  every  crate  of  cantaloupes  brought  in  by  the 
growers  is  inspected  before  being  loaded  for  shipment. 

is  in  operation  principally  at  points  within  one  or  two  days'  run 
from  the  market  and  where  a  number  of  different  products  rather 
than  some  one  specialty  is  grown.  In  regions  where  the  production 
of  some  one  important  crop  has  been  highly  developed,  a 
cooperative  marketing  association  is  likely  to  function  in 
place  of  the  type  of  shipping  association  above  described. 
In  some  cases  and  with  certain  products,  the  grading  and 
packing  are  done  at  a  central  packing  house  under  the 
supervision  of  the  association  (Fig.  181).  In  other  cases, 
the  grading  and  packing  are  done  by  the  grower  according 


302  HARVESTING  AND  MARKETING 

to  a  definite  set  of  rules  adopted  by  the  association,  and  the  goods 
are  subject  to  inspection  before  they  are  shipped  (Fig.  182).  In 
either  case,  the  goods  are  shipped  in  the  name  of  the  association, 
and  not  that  of  the  individual  grower.  In  this  way  it  is  possible 
to  ship  straight  car  lots  of  a  uniform  product  and  command  the 
attention  of  wholesale  buyers  or  general  distributors.  This 
method  of  marketing  places  great  responsibility  upon  the  manager 
of  the  association,  for  upon  his  judgment  largely  depends  the 
successful  marketing  of  the  entire  output  of  the  association. 
He  must  establish  connections  in  the  leading  markets  long  before 
the  shipping  season  begins,  and  keep  in  daily  touch  with  market 
conditions  all  over  the  country  during  the  shipping  season.  Basing 
his  judgment  upon  the  information  at  hand,  he  must  decide  what 
to  do  with  each  car  by  the  time  it  is  loaded.  Sometimes  the  crop 
is  quite  largely  sold  f.o.b.  at  a  definite  figure,  but  very  often  a 
large  part  is  sold  at  the  consuming  markets,  by  salaried  representa- 
tives of  the  growers'  organization,  or  by  its  selling  agents. 

No  matter  how  each  car  is  disposed  of,  nor  in  what  market 
it  is  eventually  sold,  nor  how  much  it  sells  for,  each  and  every 
grower  who  delivered  produce  to  the  association's  loading  shed 
the  same  day  receives  the  same  price  per  crate  or  package  for  the 
same  grade  of  goods.  That  is,  the  net  proceeds  for  the  entire 
output  of  the  association  for  a  given  day  are  pro  rated  among  the 
growers  according  to  the  number  of  packages  of  a  given  grade 
shipped  by  each.  In  this  way  the  individual  grower  is  relieved 
entirely  from  the  responsibility  of  marketing  his  products.  This 
is  a  decided  advantage  over  attempts  at  independent  marketing, 
especially  where  the  producing  point  is  located  a  great  distance 
from  the  market.  The  farther  from  market  a  grower  is  located, 
the  more  dependent  he  is  upon  organized  methods  of  marketing, 
and  the  less  he  can  afford  to  try  to  assert  his  independence. 


QUESTIONS 

1.  Mention  six  vegetables  that  remain  in  edible  condition  only  a  short  time, 

and  six  others  that  remain  in  edible  condition  a  long  time. 

2.  Mention  six  vegetables  in  which  the  entire  product  may  be  gathered  at 

one  time. 

3.  Mention  six  vegetables  in  which  the  harvest  extends  over  a  considerable 

period,   but  in  which  the  individual   specimens   must  be  harvested 
promptly  at  a  given  stage  of  maturity. 

4.  How  may  market  conditions  cause  a  departure  from  the  normal  period 

of  harvesting  a  given  product? 


QUESTIONS  303 

5.  Describe  the  deterioration  in  quality  that  may  take  place  in  vegetables 

between  harvesting  and  marketing,  and  suggest  means  of  preventing 
such  deterioration. 

6.  Discuss  the  advantages  of  using  a  packing  shed  for  vegetables  as  compared 

with  packing  in  the  field. 

7.  Describe  the  construction  of  a  simple  packing  shed. 

8.  What  additional  facilities  in  a  packing  shed  must  be  available  if  products 

demanding  washing  are  to  be  prepared  for  market? 

9.  What  factors  determine  the  kind  of  package  to  use  for  marketing  vege- 

tables? 

10.  Contrast  packages  used  for  local  market  and  for  shipping. 

1 1 .  What  are  the  advantages  of  using  the  same  kind  of  package  for  a  number 

of  products? 

12.  What  is  meant  by  a  "standard"  package? 

13.  Why  must  packages  be  provided  with  ventilation  in  hot  weather? 

14.  What  vegetables  are  usually  washed  before  marketing? 

15.  What  vegetables  are  usually  marketed  in  bunches? 

16.  Why  is  grading  of  the  product  essential  to  successful  marketing? 

17.  How  many  grades  of  vegetables  are  usually  made? 

18.  Give  full  directions  for  the  grading  of  tomatoes. 

19.  Describe  the  different  grades  of  Gem  melons  as  made  by  critical  packers. 

20.  Discuss  the  importance  of  the  proper  placing  of  specimens  in  the  package. 

21.  Why  must  the  specimens  be  placed  tightly  in  the  package? 

22.  Describe  the  proper  arrangement  of  tomatoes  and  of  muskmelons  in  their 

respective  packages. 

23.  Mention  some  details  in  which  the  demands  of  different  markets  are 

decidedly  at  variance. 

24.  Discuss  the  importance  of  knowing  the  particular  customs  of  the  market 

that  is  to  be  supplied. 

25.  Describe  the  methods  of  operating  local  street  and  stall  markets  when 

the  vegetable  grower  is  his  own  salesman. 

26.  What  are  the  advantages  of  a  local  market  over  a  distant  market? 

27.  What  three  methods  of  marketing  vegetables  are  open  to  a  grower  located 

at  a  distance  from  market? 

28.  Describe  the  conditions  under  which  each  of  these  methods  would  be 

preferable  to  the  others.    Also  point  out  the  defects  or  weaknesses  of 
each  method. 

29.  How  can  a  reputation  for  high-class  products  be  established? 

30.  What  advantages  has  an  association  of  growers  over  an  individual  grower 

in  matters  pertaining  to  marketing? 

31.  When  an  association  has  full  charge  of  marketing  the  products  of  its 

members,  how  are  the  proceeds  due  each  member  determined? 


CHAPTER  XXX 
THE  STORAGE  OF  VEGETABLES  FOR  WINTER  USE* 

Although  the  northern  cities  and  large  towns  may  be  supplied 
during  the  winter  with  fresh  vegetables  shipped  in  from  the 
South  or  in  certain  cases  grown  in  greenhouses  in  the  North, 
the  smaller  towns  and  country  places  are  likely  to  be  without 
an  adequate  supply  of  vegetables  in  winter  unless  some  one  in 
the  locality  has  sufficient  foresight  to  store  them  and  put  them 
on  the  market  as  needed.  Local  market  gardeners  in  many  places 
find  the  marketing  of  fall-stored  root  crops  during  the  winter 
a  very  remunerative  way  of  employing  their  time  between  one 
growing  season  and  the  next.  Large  quantities  of  cabbage, 
onions,  potatoes,  and  other  crops  with  good  keeping  qualities  are 
likewise  stored  every  winter  at  producing  points  for  supplying 
the  wholesale  trade  with  these  commodities  in  carload  lots.  A 
person  who  grows  vegetables  for  home  use  should  include  in  his 
garden  a  large  assortment  of  vegetables  intended  primarily  for 
winter,  and  give  proper  attention  to  their  storage. 

Time  of  Planting. — Vegetables  to  be  stored  for  winter  use 
should  be  planted  at  such  a  time  that  they  will  reach  the  right 
stage  of  development  at  the  proper  season  for  storing.  This  means 
that  in  the  case  of  some  of  the  crops  they  will  be  planted  consider- 
ably later  than  if  designed  for  summer  use,  since  the  product  is 
of  better  quality  if  not  allowed  to  continue  growth  after  reaching 
the  desired  stage  of  development,  and  this  stage  should  not  be 
reached  before  the  arrival  of  the  storage  season.  Since  most 
vegetables  usually  keep  best  if  put  into  storage  comparatively 
late,  it  should  be  the  aim  of  the  gardener  to  mature  the  vegetables 
for  winter  use  as  late  in  the  season  as  he  can,  and  yet  have  them 
harvested  before  they  are  injured  by  the  cold.  If  planted  too 
early  the  root  crops  are  likely  to  become  tough  and  woody  or 
pithy  before  the  season  for  storage  arrives.  If  cabbages  are 
planted  too  early  they  are  likely  to  burst  open  before  the  weather 
is  cool  enough  for  them  to  be  stored. 

The  proper  time  for  planting  the  various  vegetables  for  winter 

*  Portions  of  the  present  chapter  were  first  published  by  the  author  in 
Circular  154  of  the  Illinois  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 
304 


CONDITIONS  ESSENTIAL  TO  SUCCESSFUL  STORAGE     305 

use  will  depend  upon  the  variety  and  the  length  of  the  season. 
The  earlier  maturing  the  variety,  the  later  it  can  be  planted; 
and  the  farther  north  the  locality,  the  earlier  the  planting  may  and 
must  be  done.  The  cool  nights  of  the  northern  summers  are  espe- 
cially favorable  to  the  growth  of  root  crops,  cabbage,  celery, 
etc.,  so  that  it  is  feasible  to  grow  a  larger  assortment  of  vege- 
tables for  storage  in  the  North  than  in  the  South.  It  is  fortunate 
that  such  is  the  case,  for  in  the  South,  vegetables  can  be  grown  in 
the  winter,  while  in  the  North,  storage  is  a  much  more  important 
factor  in  the  winter  supply. 

In  central  and  northern  localities,  the  dates  for  planting  the 
vegetables  designed  for  winter  use  would  be  about  as  follows: 

1.  Onions  (for  either  summer  or  winter  use),  as  early  as  the 
ground  can  be  worked  in  spring.  Onions  differ  from  all  the  other 
vegetables  stored  for  winter  in  that  they  must  be  ripened  and 
cured  while  the  weather  is  still  warm.  The  earlier  they  are  planted, 
the  surer  the  crop. 

2.  Parsnips,  salsify,  horse-radish,  and  leeks  would  be  planted 
about  the  same  time  as  onions,  for,  although  an  extremely  early 
start  is  not  so  imperative  in  the  case  of  these  vegetables,  they 
demand  a  long  season  to  complete  their  growth,  and  the  earlier 
they  are  started,  the  longer  the  time  they  will  have  to  grow. 

3.  Beets  and  carrots,  late  varieties,  May  1  to  May  15;  early 
varieties,  June  15  to  July  15.  Plantings  made  in  May  are  surer 
to  make  a  crop  than  those  made  in  June  and  July,  unless  facilities 
for   irrigation  are   available. 

4.  Rutabagas  are  not  adapted  to  hot  climates,  and  hence  are 
seldom  grown  in  central  and  southern  localities.  In  the  North 
they  should  be  planted  from  June  15  to  July  1. 

5.  Cabbage,  Brussels  sprouts,  and  celery  (transplanted),  June 
15  to  July  15. 

6.  Turnips,  winter  radishes,  and  kohlrabi,  July  20  to  August  10. 
The  other  crops  suitable  for  storage  would  be  planted  at  the 

same  time,  whether  intended  for  immediate  use  at  maturity  or 
designed  to  be  stored  for  winter. 

Conditions  Essential  to  Successful  Storage. — Of  the  vegetables 
stored  for  winter,  some  require  entirely  different  conditions  in 
storage  than  do  others,  so  that  attempts  to  store  all  vegetables 
under  the  same  conditions  would  result  only  in  failure.  In  order 
that  root  crops  may  be  stored  without  wilting,  rotting  or  starting 
into  growth,  they  must  be  kept  cool,  fairly  moist,  and  away  from 
20 


306  STORAGE  Oh   VEGETABLES  FOR  WINTER  USE 

contact  with  circulating  air.  Cabbage  may  be  successfully  stored 
under  the  same  conditions.  Onions  must  be  kept  at  a  low  tem- 
perature, but  differ  from  the  root  crops  in  that  they  must  be  in  a 
dry  atmosphere  and  have  free  circulation  of  air.  In  a  moist 
atmosphere,  under  high  temperature,  they  would  either  rot  or 
sprout.  Vegetables  that  are  expected  to  continue  growth  while 
in  storage,  such  as  celery,  leeks,  Brussels  sprouts,  and  parsley, 
must  be  planted  in  dirt  and  the  roots  kept  moist.  Air  should 
circulate  freely  about  the  tops,  and  the  temperature  must  be  low. 
On  the  other  hand,  sweet  potatoes,  pumpkins,  and  squashes 
demand  a  high  temperature  and  dry  atmosphere,  with  free  circula- 
tion of  air. 

The  conditions  of  storage  favorable  to  the  different  crops  are 
secured  in  various  ways.  Market  gardeners  use  outdoor  pits  or 
specially  constructed  cellars  for  their  root  crops,  cabbage  and 
celery.  Onions  are  commercially  stored  in  slatted  crates  piled  in 
tiers  in  frost-proof  houses  provided  with  means  for  ventilation 
so  that  the  temperature  can  be  maintained  at  slightly  above 
freezing.  Sweet  potatoes  and  squashes  are  also  stored  in  specially 
constructed  houses,  in  which  the  temperature  can  be  controlled; 
but  since  a  high  temperature  is  demanded  for  these  crops,  artificial 
heat  is  usually  employed.  Circulation  of  air  about  these  prod- 
ucts in  storage  is  facilitated  by  the  use  of  slatted  bins,  and 
allowing  ample  space  between  the  bins  and  the  side  walls  of  the 
building. 

VEGETABLE    STORAGE    HOUSES 

In  the  construction  of  vegetable  cellars  and  storage  houses, 
protection  against  frost  is  provided  in  various  ways.  Outdoor 
cellars  used  for  the  storage  of  potatoes,  celery,  cabbage  or  root 
crops  in  cold  climates  are  usually  made  partly  under  ground, 
and  the  roof  is  supported  by  heavy  timbers  and  covered  deeply 
with  earth  (Fig.  183).  Usually  this  is  sodded  to  prevent  washing 
by  heavy  rains.  Storage  houses  for  onions,  sweet  potatoes  (Fig. 
184)  and  squashes  are  usually  built  entirely  above  ground,  and  the 
walls  insulated  to  prevent  fluctuations  in  temperature.  The  air 
in  a  storage  house  above  ground  can  be  kept  drier  than  that  in  one 
below;  hence  the  use  of  above-ground  houses  for  these  products. 
The  insulation  may  consist  of  a  series  of  dead-air  spaces  in  the 
wall,  made  by  using  layer  after  layer  of  building  paper,  separated 
by  wooden  strips  from  one  to  four  inches  wide,  until  a  wall  twelve 


VEGETABLE  STORAGE  HOUSES 


307 


to  fourteen  inches  thick  is  built  up;  or  a  double  wall  may  be  built 
with  the  two  parts  twelve  inches  apart,  and  the  intervening  space 
filled  with  sawdust  or  other  material  that  is  a  poor  conductor  of 


Fig.    184. — Storage  house  for  sweet  potatoes,  U 


heat.  In  this  case,  also,  the  wall  is  lined  with  paper  to  make  the 
insulation  perfect.  In  both  cases  it  is  customary  to  use  matched 
lumber  in  the  construction  of  the  walls. 

20a 


308  STORAGE  OF  VEGETABLES  FOR  WINTER  USE 

STORAGE    IN    SMALL    QUANTITIES   FOR   HOME   USE 

Root  Crops  and  Cabbage. — For  home  use  the  root  crops  and 
cabbage  can  best  be  stored  in  outdoor  pits  for  late  winter  use, 
and  in  the  cellar  for  use  early  in  the  season.  The  chief  objection 
usually  urged  against  storing  root  crops  in  the  cellar  is  that  they 
are  likely  to  wilt.  This  difficulty  can  be  obviated  by  packing  the 
roots  in  boxes  with  alternate  layers  of  earth  or  sand,  and  placing 
the  boxes  in  the  coolest  part  of  the  cellar.  The  earth  will  absorb 
any  odors  in  case  the  vegetable  should  start  to  decay,  and  thus 

avoid  endangering  the    health 
^Jui^it  of  the   family.      Cabbage   can 

be  stored  in  the  same  way  if 
the  roots  and  outer  leaves  are 
removed  and  merely  the  heads 
are  packed  in  boxes  or  barrels 
of  earth. 

Fig.    185.— Arrangement  of  cabbage  for  Cabbage     intended     for     late 

winter  storage.  ° 

winter  use,  however,  will  keep 
better  in  an  outdoor  pit  than  in  a  cellar.  The  same  is  true  of  par- 
snips, salsify,  horse-radish,  and  some  of  the  other  root  crops. 
Except  where  the  ground  is  especially  well  drained,  the  pits  are 
usually  made  entirely  above  ground.  For  storing  cabbage  in  this 
manner,  the  plants  are  pulled  with  the  roots  and  leaves  on,  and 
placed  upside-down  in  regular  order  on  a  level  piece  of  ground. 
Usually  three  plants  are  placed  side  by  side,  with  two  above,  and 
this  arrangement  repeated  so  that  the  final  result  is  a  long,  low 
pile  of  cabbage  showing  five  plants  in  a  cross-section  (Fig.  185). 
Earth  is  piled  against  and  over  this  array  of  cabbage  until  the 
plants,  including  the  roots,  are  entirely  covered.  In  a  severe 
climate,  a  layer  of  manure  may  be  added  when  cold  weather  arrives. 
For  storing  parsnips,  salsify,  and  horse-radish,  which  are 
uninjured  by  freezing,  the  roots  may  be  placed  in  a  pile  on  the 
ground  and  covered  with  about  six  inches  of  earth.  The  advantage 
of  storing  in  this  manner,  instead  of  allowing  the  roots  to  remain 
where  they  grew,  is  the  saving  in  time  of  digging,  when  a  few  roots 
are  wanted  during  the  winter.  It  is  much  easier  to  open  the  pit 
when  the  ground  is  frozen  than  to  dig  the  roots  from  the  garden 
with  a  pick.  In  fact,  the  difficulty  of  digging  almost  precludes 
the  use  of  these  crops  in  midwinter  unless  they  are  more  acces- 
sible than  in  the  place  where  they  grew. 


STORAGE  FOR  HOME  USE 


300 


Beets,  carrots,  turnips,  rutabagas,  kohlrabi  and  Irish  pota- 
toes can  also  be  stored  in  outdoor  pits,  but  they  must  be  covered 
sufficiently  to  prevent  freezing.  One  of  the  best  ways  of  handling 
these  crops  is  to  place  them  in  a  conical  pile  and  cover  first  with 
six  or  eight  inches  of  hay  or  straw,  then  with  earth  to  a  similar 
depth  (Fig.  186).  If  extremely  cold  weather  is  expected,  a  layer 
of  manure  should  be  placed  outside  of  the  earth.  In  getting 
vegetables  from  oits  of  this  kind  in  midwinter,  the  manure  is 


Fig.   186. — Outdoor  pit  of  beets  opened  up  in  March. 

removed  slightly  from  one  side  of  the  pit  near  the  bottom  and  a 
hole  about  a  foot  square  chopped  through  the  frozen  earth  with 
an  old  ax.  Sufficient  hay  is  then  pulled  out,  by  means  of  an  iron 
hook,  to  enable  a  person  to  thrust  his  arm  into  the  opening  and 
reach  the  vegetables.  Enough  are  taken  out  to  last  a  few  days 
and  the  hole  through  the  dirt  then  stuffed  with  hay,  the  manure 
being  replaced  if  necessary. 

Celery  may  be  stored  in  various  ways,  but  one  of  the  most 
satisfactory  methods  for  home  use  is  to  dig  the  plants  with  the 
roots  on  and  plant  them  in  moist  earth  placed  on  the  cellar  floor, 


310 


STORAGE  OF  VEGETABLES  FOR  WINTER  USE 


or  in  boxes  to  be  placed  in  the  cellar  (Fig.  187).  In  either  case 
the  cellar  must  be  cool,  the  ventilation  good,  and  the  earth  sur- 
rounding the  roots  kept  moist  by  repeated  applications  of  water. 
In  applying  the  water,  care  must  be  taken  to  wet  only  the  roots 
and  not  the  tops  of  the  plants.  If  the  cellar  is  kept  dark,  all  new 
growth  made  during  the  winter  will  be  thoroughly  blanched. 

Leeks  and  Brussels  Sprouts  stand  considerable  freezing,  and 
can  often  be  carried  through  the  winter  in  good  condition  by  dig- 
ging with  the  roots  on  and  planting  close  together  in  coldframes 


Fig.  1ST. — Celery  packed  in  box  for  winter  storage  in  cellar.     The  holes  ir 
side  of  box  are  to  facilitate  watering  without  wetting  tops  of  plants. 


late  in  the  fall.     In  extreme  weather,  straw  or  other  protection 
should  be  provided  in  addition  to  the  sash. 

Parsley  can  be  wintered  in  a  coldframe  along  with  leeks  and 
Brussels  sprouts,  or  a  few  roots  may  be  planted  in  boxes  of  earth 
and  placed  near  the  cellar  window,  or  the  plants  can  be  placed  in 
pots  and  grown  in  the  window  of  a  living  room  like  geraniums  or 
other  house  plants.  The  last-named  method  is  as  satisfactory  as  any, 
and  when  garnishing  material  is  needed,  it  is  extremely  accessible. 


QUESTIONS  311 

Onions  intended  for  winter  use  should  be  thoroughly  cured, 
as  soon  as  possible  after  harvesting,  by  being  kept  in  a  dry  place 
where  the  air  can  circulate  freely  about  them.  After  the  onions 
are  cured,  they  keep  best  at  a  low  temperature.  If  the  cellar  is 
cool,  as  it  should  be  for  the  storage  of  most  crops,  onions  will  keep 
fairly  well  if  placed  in  market  baskets  hung  on  the  joists  at  the 
top  of  the  cellar.  Frequent  ventilation  of  the  cellar,  especially 
when  the  outside  air  is  dry,  will  improve  the  conditions  for  the 
onions.  If  milk  and  butter  are  to  be  kept  in  the  cellar,  the  onions 
had  better  be  somewhere  else.  They  can  frequently  be  kept  in 
the  attic  all  winter  if  placed  close  enough  to  the  chimney  to  prevent 
freezing,  yet  far  enough  away  to  prevent  over-heating  or  sprouting. 
The  dry  atmosphere  of  a  good  attic  is  unfavorable  to  the  sprouting, 
even  though  at  times  the  temperature  may  become  somewhat  high. 

Sweet  Potatoes,  Squashes,  and  Pumpkins. — All  the  vegetables 
considered  .thus  far  keep  best  at  a  relatively  low  temperature. 
In  marked  contrast  to  these  vegetables  are  sweet  potatoes,  squashes, 
and  pumpkins.  These  demand  high  temperature,  a  dry  atmos- 
phere and  free  circulation  of  air.  There  is  no  better  place  to  keep 
sweet  potatoes  for  home  use  than  in  a  slatted  crate  close  to  the 
chimney  in  an  upstairs  room  that  is  kept  warm  at  night  as  well  as 
during  the  day.  Another  good  place  is  in  baskets  hung  from  the 
ceiling  of  the  furnace  room  in  a  basement.  Squashes  and  pump- 
kins also  keep  much  better  in  the  furnace  room  than  in  the  "  vege- 
table cellar  "  or  cool  part  of  the  basement. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Discuss  the  importance  of  storing  vegetables,  from  the  standpoint  of  the 

market  gardener  and  the  home  grower. 

2.  What  should  govern  the  time  of  planting  vegetables  that  are  to  be  stored 

for  winter  use? 

3.  What  three  factors  must  be  considered  in  the  storage  of  all  vegetables? 

4.  State  the  conditions  essential  to  the  successful  storage  of  four  different 

groups  of  vegetables. 

5.  Describe  the  essential  features  in  the  construction  of  a  storage  house  for 

vegetables. 

6.  How  may  the  root  crops  and  cabbage  be  stored  for  home  use? 

7.  Describe  the  storing  of  celery  for  home  use. 

8.  Where  can  the  home  supply  of  onions  be  kept  for  winter? 

9.  Where  is  the  best  place  to  keep  the  winter  supply  of  sweet  potatoes  and 

squashes  for  home  use? 


CHAPTER  XXXI 
FORCING  VEGETABLES 

As  mentioned  in  the  preceding  chapter,  one  of  the  ways  of 
securing  fresh  vegetables  at  the  North  during  the  winter  is  to  grow 
them  under  glass.  The  growing  of  vegetables  to  edible  maturity 
under  glass  at  a  time  of  the  year  when  it  would  be  impossible  to 
grow  them  out-of-doors  in  the  given  locality  on  account  of  unfavor- 
ably low  temperatures,  is  known  as  "  forcing."  This  term  is  used 
whether  the  crops  are  grown  in  greenhouses,  hotbeds  or  cold- 
frames,  but  is  most  often  employed  to  designate  the  growing  of 
these  crops  in  artificially-heated  glass  structures  tall  enough  to 
protect  the  gardener  as  well  as  his  crops  from  the  cold  of  winter. 
Certain  crops,  such  as  lettuce  and  radishes,  may  be  grown  in  low 
structures  like  hotbeds  (Fig.  188)  and  coldframes,  especially  in 
late  winter  and  early  spring;  and  other  crops,  like  cauliflower, 
celery,  eggplants,  cucumbers  and  certain  varieties  of  muskmelons, 
may  be  planted  in  hotbeds  early  in  the  spring  and  permitted  to 
remain  there  until  reaching  maturity,  even  though  at  the  time 
they  mature  the  weather  is  warm  enough  for  the  outdoor  culture 
of  these  crops  and  the  glass  is  left  off  at  night  as  well  as  during 
the  day.  In  this  case,  the  crops  are  started  under  forcing  condi- 
tions, but  complete  their  growth  essentially  in  the  open.  In  the 
strictest  sense,  forcing  implies  the  maturing  of  the  crop  at  a  time 
when  the  plant  could  not  live  in  the  open,  though  often  the  last 
crop  of  the  forcing  season  continues  bearing  until  after  the  weather 
is  sufficiently  warm  for  starting  a  similar  crop  out-of-doors. 

Marketing  Hothouse  Vegetables. — Forced  vegetables  in  winter 
do  not  compete  in  the  market  against  stored  products.  They  are, 
for  the  most  part,  sorts  that  do  not  lend  themselves  readily  to 
storage,  such  as  lettuce,  cucumbers,  and  tomatoes. 

Furthermore,  there  is  not  much  competition  between  forced 
products  grown  close  to  market  and  outdoor  vegetables  of  the  same 
kind  shipped  in  from  a  distance,  for  the  greenhouse  products  can 
be  marketed  in  a  much  fresher  condition,  and  are  likely  to  be  more 
perfectly  developed  on  account  of  being  grown  under  controlled 
conditions  of  temperature  and  moisture.  Hothouse  products 
ordinarily  sell  much  higher  than  outdoor  products  at  the  same 
312 


REGULATION  OF  TEMPERATURE 


313 


season.  This  fact,  together  with  the  saving  in  transportation, 
makes  it  possible  to  grow  greenhouse  crops  at  a  profit,  even  though 
the  cost  of  glass  houses,  fuel,  and  hand  labor  is  great. 

In  nearly  every  large  city  of  the  North  and  in  many  smaller 
towns  there  are  extensive  greenhouse  plants  devoted  to  the  grow- 
ing of  vegetables,  some  individual  growers  having  as  much  as  ten 
acres  under  glass.  Lettuce  is  grown  in  this  manner  more  exten- 
sively than  any  other  crop  (Fig.  189),  though  it  is  quite  a  common 
practice  to  grow  spring  crops  of  cucumbers  or  tomatoes  in  houses 
devoted  to  lettuce  during  the  coldest  months. 


Fig.   188. — Hotbed  of  head  lettuce  approaching  maturity. 

Hothouse  vegetables  are  not  marketed  exclusively  in  the  cities 
where  they  are  grown.  Considerable  shipping  trade  has  been 
developed.  In  this  case  there  is  some  competition  with  southern 
products,  but  the  superior  quality  of  the  forced  product  quite 
largely  eliminates  this  factor. 

Regulation  of  Temperature. — The  temperature  and  moisture 
requirements  of  a  given  vegetable  are  essentially  the  same  whether 
it  is  grown  under  glass  or  in  the  open;  but  in  growing  a  crop  under 
glass,  especially  in  a  modern  greenhouse  where  plenty  of  heating 
pipes  have  been  installed  and  the  arrangement  of  valves  makes  it 


314 


FORCING  VEGETABLES 


possible  to  turn  the  heat  into  any  number  of  pipes  as  desired,  it  is 
possible  to  more  fully  meet  the  temperature  requirements  of  a 
given  crop  in  midwinter  than  in  the  case  of  the  same  crop  grown 
out-of-doors  in  the  summer.  During  the  season  when  artificial 
heat  is  required,  the  heat  is  regulated  primarily  by  manipulation 
of  the  valves  which  connect  the  pipes  with  the  source  of  heat, 
cutting  off  or  turning  on  whatever  pipes  may  be  necessary. 
Incidentally,  opening  or  closing  the  ventilators  will  assist  in  main- 
taining the  proper  temperature  in  case  of  sudden  changes  from 
cloudiness  to  sunshine  or  vice  versa.  However,  ventilation  of  a 
greenhouse  in  midwinter  is  primarily  for  the  purpose  of  changing 


Kiq.  189. — Interior  view  of  large  range  of  lettuce  houses  near  Chicago. 

the  air  rather  than  lowering  the  temperature.  In  late  spring,  on 
warm  days,  when  no  artificial  heat  is  required,  ventilation  may  aid 
materially  in  keeping  the  houses  from  becoming  too  warm.  In 
still  warmer  weather,  shading  of  the  glass  by  whitewashing  may 
further  aid  in  keeping  the  houses  cool.  Thus  the  temperature  in  a 
glass  house  can  be  controlled  to  a  nicety,  if  the  house  is  properly 
equipped  and  the  operator  is  skilful.  This  makes  plant  growing 
easy,  so  far  as  temperature  is  concerned. 

Greenhouse  Troubles. — However,  other  difficulties  are  en- 
countered. The  damp  atmosphere  of  the  greenhouse  makes 
conditions  especially  favorable  for  the  development  of  fungous 
diseases  on  the  growing  crops;  and  unless  extreme  care  is  exercised 
in  the  watering,  especially  during  a  siege  of  cloudy  weather, 


LETTUCE  AND  RADISHES  315 

serious  outbreaks  of  disease  are  likely  to  occur.  The  damp  atmos- 
phere and  dark  weather  are  not  only  favorable  to  the  develop- 
ment of  the  fungi  causing  disease,  but  also  encourage  a  sappy 
growth  in  the  plants  which  is  more  susceptible  to  disease  than  a 
harder,  more  normal  growth.  In  cloudy  weather  it  is  necessary 
to  water  sparingly  and  hold  the  temperature  rather  low  if  trouble 
is  to  be  avoided. 

Certain  insects  also  thrive  better  in  the  greenhouse  than  out- 
of-doors,  and  an  almost  continual  warfare  must  be  waged  against 
them  if  the  crops  are  to  be  fully  protected.  In  fact,  some  growers 
practice  fumigation  of  their  houses  regularly,  at  intervals  of  about 
a  week,  rather  than  ever  give  the  plant  lice  and  other  insects  a 
chance  to  become  seriously  abundant. 

Thus,  in  greenhouse  vegetable  growing,  constant  attention 
must  be  given  to  the  regulation  of  heat,  ventilating,  watering, 
and  the  control  of  insects  and  diseases.  Yet,  when  properly 
managed,  the  crop  in  a  greenhouse  is  under  much  more  complete 
control  than  an  outdoor  crop. 

Selection  of  Crops  for  Forcing. — Greenhouse  vegetable  grow- 
ing is  the  most  intensive  type  of  vegetable  production,  and  only 
those  crops  which  yield  a  product  of  high  value  per  square  foot 
of  space  occupied  can  be  profitably  grown  under  glass.  It  is  also 
true  that  certain  crops  adapt  themselves  more  readily  to  green- 
house conditions  than  others.  There  are  also  special  forcing  strains 
of  nearly  all  the  vegetables  commonly  grown  under  glass.  These 
have,  in  many  instances,  been  developed  under  greenhouse  condi- 
tions, and  are  better  adapted  to  such  conditions  than  are  the 
varieties  and  strains  commonly  grown  out-of-doors.  Furthermore, 
some  of  the  best  forcing  strains  are  of  little  value  for  outdoor 
culture,  owing  to  the  difference  in  conditions,  though  some  sorts 
are  well  adapted  to  both  uses.  The  point  that  must  be  kept  in 
mind  is  that,  in  order  to  succeed  in  growing  vegetables  under  glass, 
it  is  necessary  to  select  varieties  and  strains  that  are  adapted  to 
the  purpose.  Such  varieties  are  usually  designated  distinctly  in 
seed  catalogues. 

Lettuce  and  Radishes. — The  leading  forcing-house  crops  are 
lettuce,  radishes,  cucumbers,  and  tomatoes.  Of  these,  lettuce  is 
by  far  the  most  important.  Both  radishes  and  lettuce  make  a 
very  rapid  growth,  so  that,  in  spite  of  the  short  days  of  winter, 
several  crops  can  be  grown  in  succession  in  the  same  house  in  one 
season.    In  order  to  economize  space,  the  lettuce  is  usually  started 


316 


FORCING  VEGETABLES 


in  seed-beds  or  flats  and  later  transplanted  to  the  bench  or  bed 
where  it  is  to  complete  its  growth  (Fig.  190).  Often  it  is  shifted 
once  from  the  seed  flat  before  the  final  transplanting.  When 
handled  in  this  way,  leaf  lettuce  occupies  for  only  a  few  weeks 
the  final  amount  of  space  allotted  to  it;  and  as  soon  as  one  crop  is 
harvested  another  set  of  plants  is  ready  to  take  its  place.  Radish 
seeds  are  sown  directly  where  the  crop  is  to  complete  its  growth. 
Both  these  crops  are  comparatively  easy  to  grow,  for  a  vegetative 


Fig.  190.— Grand  Rapid 


part  constitutes  the  edible  product;  they  endure  relatively  low 
temperatures  without  a  serious  check  in  growth  and  are  not 
subject  to  serious  attack  of  insects  or  disease  if  proper  care  is 
taken  in  the  management  of  the  houses  in  which  they  are  grown. 
Head  lettuce  is  much  more  difficult  to  grow  then  leaf  lettuce, 
since  it  is  likely  to  fail  to  head,  or  to  tip-burn  or  rot  or  become 
bitter,  if  conditions  are  not  exactly  to  its  liking. 

Cucumbers  and  tomatoes  require  a  much  longer  time  to  develop 
than  lettuce  or  radishes,  and  are  more  uncertain  as  midwinter 


CUCUMBERS  AND  TOMATOES 


317 


crops.  They  require  pollination,  and  pollen  is  likely  to  be  scarce 
in  dark  winter  weather.  The  artificial  support  and  the  careful 
training  required  make  their  culture  more  laborious  than  that  of 
lettuce  or  radishes  (Fig.  191).  They  are  also  susceptible  to  certain 
diseases  that  may  utterly  ruin  the  crop.     They  are  more  satis- 


Fig.  191.— Bench  of  hothouse  tomatoes,  showing  method  of  training.  Each 
plant  is  pruned  to  a  single  stem,  and  tied  with  raffia  to  upright  cord. 


factory  as  fall  and  spring  than  as  midwinter  crops.  As  already 
mentioned,  a  favorite  practice  among  some  growers  is  to  plant  a 
spring  crop  of  cucumbers  or  tomatoes  in  the  houses  following  the 
last  crop  of  lettuce.  Such  a  crop  may  begin  ripening  only  a  month 
or  six  weeks  in  advance  of  the  outdoor  product,  but  usually  meets 
with  ready  sale  at  good  prices  in  the  local  markets. 


318  FORCING  VEGETABLES 


QUESTIONS 

1.  What  is  meant  by  the  forcing  of  vegetables? 

2.  What  different  kinds  of  glass  structures  may  be  used  for  the  forcing  of 

vegetables? 

3.  What  are  the  leading  hothouse  vegetable  crops? 

4.  Why  is  there  little  competition  on  the  market  between  hothouse  vegetables 

and  outdoor  products  shipped  in  from  the  South? 

5.  How  can  the  temperature  of  a  greenhouse  be  controlled  at  different 

seasons  of  the  year,  and  in  sudden  changes  of  weather  conditions? 

6.  Can  the  temperature  requirements  of  a  given  crop  be  more  fully  met  in 

a  greenhouse  or  out-of-doors?    Why  and  how? 

7.  Are  plants  more  or  less  subject  to  disease  in  a  greenhouse  as  compared 

with  out-of-doors?    Why? 

8.  What  precautions  should  be  taken  in  the  care  of  greenhouse  crops  in 

cloudy  weather? 

9.  What  is  the  chief  means  of  controlling  insects  in  greenhouses? 

10.  What  considerations  should  govern  the  selection  of  crops  for  forcing? 

11.  How  is  lettuce  handled  as  a  greenhouse  crop? 

12.  Why  are  radishes  and  leaf  lettuce  comparatively  easy  crops  to  grow  in  a 

forcing  house? 

13.  What  difficulties  are  encountered  in  growing  head  lettuce  in  a  greenhouse? 

14.  Why  are  cucumbers  and  tomatoes  more  difficult  to  grow  in  a  greenhouse 

than  radishes  and  lettuce? 

15.  How  are  greenhouse  tomatoes  trained? 

16.  What  combination  of  greenhouse  crops  is  suitable  for  fall,  winter,  and 

spring,  to  get  the  longest  use  of  the  houses  in  profitable  crops? 


CHAPTER  XXXII 

EXTENT    OF  VEGETABLE    GROWING    IN    THE    UNITED 
STATES. 

Vegetables  are  grown  quite  generally  throughout  all  parts 
of  the  United  States,  and  their  production  constitutes  an  industry 
of  large  aggregate  proportions.  The  Fourteenth  Census  Report., 
which  gives  the  figures  for  1919,  shows  that  the  value  of  all  vege- 
tables reported  for  that  year  was  $1,302,199,688.  The  same  year 
the  value  of  all  fruits  and  nuts,  including  small  fruits,  orchard 
fruits  of  the  temperate  zone,  citrus  and  tropical  fruits,  and  edible 
nuts,  was  only  $732,998,883,  or  only  slightly  over  half  the  value 
of  the  vegetable  crop.  Nearly  one-half  of  the  value  of  the  vege- 
table crop  was  represented  by  potatoes.  The  value  of  the  vege- 
tables other  than  potatoes  was  nearly  equal  to  the  value  of 
all  the  fruits.  The  total  value  of  the  vegetable  crop  was  much 
greater  than  that  of  the  oats  crop  and  nearly  two-thirds  that  of 
the  wheat  crop  of  the  nation. 

The  above  statements  refer  to  the  value  of  the  nation's  crop 
as  a  whole.  In  some  states  the  vegetable  crop  is  of  much  more 
importance  as  compared  with  other  crops  than  in  other  states. 
However,  in  every  state  except  California,  Oregon,  Washington 
and  New  Mexico,  the  value  of  the  vegetable  crop  exceeded  that 
of  the  fruits  and  nuts.  In  each  of  nine  states  the  value  of  the 
vegetable  crop  exceeded  that  of  all  cereal  grains  combined.  These 
states  were  Maine,  New  Hampshire,  Vermont,  Massachusetts, 
Rhode  Island,  Connecticut,  New  York,  New  Jersey  and  Florida. 
In  nine  other  states  the  value  of  the  vegetables  exceeded  that  of 
the  corn  crop.  These  states  were  Montana,  Idaho,  Wyoming, 
Colorado,  Utah,  Nevada,  Washington,  Oregon  and  California. 
The  vegetable  crop  exceeded  in  value  the  wheat  crop  in  seventeen 
different  states  in  addition  to  the  nine  states  where  it  exceeded  the 
value  of  all  cereal  grains.  These  states  were  Pennsylvania,  Dela- 
ware, Maryland,  Virginia,  West  Virginia,  North  Carolina,  South 
Carolina,  Georgia,  Michigan,  Wisconsin,  Kentucky,  Tennessee, 
Alabama,  Mississippi,  Arkansas,  Louisiana  and  Nevada. 

The  value  of  the  vegetable  crops  in  the  United  States  in  1919 
was  nearly  equal  to  the  value  of  the  dairy  products,  was  consider- 

319 


320  EXTENT  OF  VEGETABLE  GROWING 

ably  greater  than  the  value  of  all  the  hogs  in  the  country  that  year, 
and  over  three  times  the  value  of  all  the  sheep  in  the  country.  In 
twenty-two  states  the  value  of  the  vegetables  exceeded  the  value 
of  the  dairy  products.  These  states  were  Maine,  New  Jersey, 
Delaware,  Maryland,  Virginia,  West  Virginia,  North  Carolina, 
South  Carolina,  Georgia,  Florida,  Kentucky,  Tennessee,  Alabama, 
Mississippi,  Arkansas,  Louisiana,  Texas,  Idaho,  Wyoming,  Colo- 
rado, Utah  and  Nevada.  The  value  of  the  vegetables  exceeded  the 
value  of  the  hogs  in  practically  every  state  except  the  distinctively 
corn  belt  states.  The  only  states  in  which  the  value  of  the  hogs 
was  greater  than  the  value  of  the  vegetables  were  Indiana,  Illinois, 
Iowa,  Missouri,  South  Dakota,  Nebraska,  and  Kansas.  The  value 
of  vegetables  was  greater  than  the  value  of  the  sheep  in  nearly 
every  state  except  some  of  the  sparsely  settled  western  states 
where  range  conditions  still  exist,  and  where  sheep  constitute  a 
leading  industry,  viz. :  Montana,  Idaho,  Wyoming,  New  Mexico, 
Arizona,  Utah,  Nevada,  Oregon. 

The  acreage  and  value  of  the  potato  crop,  the  sweet  potato  crop, 
and  of  other  vegetables  grown  for  sale  in  each  state  for  the  year 
1919,  as  recorded  in  the  Fourteenth  Census  Report,  are  given  in 
Table  IV.  The  value  of  all  vegetables  produced  in  each  state  is  also 
given  in  the  second  column  from  the  right.  These  values  include 
the  vegetables  produced  in  farm  home  gardens  as  well  as  those 
grown  for  sale.  The  last  column  in  the  table  indicates  the  value  of 
the  vegetable  crop  for  each  state  expressed  in  percentage  of  the 
total  value  of  all  crops  produced  in  the  state.  On  the  accompanying 
chart  (Fig.  192)  shading  is  used  to  indicate  the  states  in  which  the 
value  of  the  vegetable  crops  amounted  to  over  10  per  cent,  of  the 
total  value  of  all  crops. 


VALUE  OF  VEGETABLE  CROPS 


321 


21 


322 


EXTENT  OF  VEGETABLE  GROWING 


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VALUE  OF  VEGETABLE  CROPS 


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CHAPTER  XXXIII 
SUGGESTIONS  FOR  LABORATORY  WORK 

Wherever  possible,  text-book  work  in  vegetable  gardening 
should  be  supplemented  by  practical  exercises.  No  matter  how 
lucid  the  text  may  be,  the  student  will  gain  a  much  more  accurate 
conception  of  the  various  garden  operations  and  the  cultural 
requirements  of  the  different  crops  if  he  does  some  actual  garden- 
ing. If  the  school  is  provided  with  land  and  equipment  for  this 
purpose,  the  laboratory  work  may  be  made  a  part  of  the  regular 
class  exercises.  In  the  absence  of  provision  for  gardening  exercises 
at  the  school,  in  the  case  of  high  school  students  living  at  home 
it  is  usually  feasible  for  each  student  to  carry  on  the  laboratory 
work  in  his  own  back  yard.  In  this  case  he  can  plant  and  maintain 
a  regular  home  garden  designed  to  fit  the  available  space  and  meet 
the  requirements  of  the  particular  family.  It  is  expected  that  the 
instructor  will  inspect  the  gardens  of  the  various  pupils  as  often 
as  circumstances  will  permit. 

Whether  the  gardens  are  maintained  at  the  school  or  at  the 
homes,  the  seeds  should  be  purchased  in  bulk  and  distributed  to 
the  various  students.  If  the  school  funds  do  not  provide  for 
material  of  this  kind,  a  small  laboratory  fee  may  be  charged  or 
the  actual  expense  for  the  seeds  shared  fro  rata  by  the  students. 

Even  though  land  for  the  outdoor  work  may  not  be  available 
at  the  school,  it  is  often  feasible  to  grow  the  plants  there  that 
require  starting  under  glass.  Some  of  the  plants  may  be  started 
in  boxes,  or  flats,  in  the  schoolroom.  However,  the  students 
should  have  practice  in  the  making  and  management  of  hotbeds, 
and  this  can  be  carried  on  more  satisfactorily  at  the  school  than 
at  the  homes  of  the  individual  students.  Therefore  it  is  strongly 
advised  that  schools  undertaking  to  give  instruction  in  vegetable 
gardening  be  provided  with  equipment  in  hotbeds  and  coldframes, 
even  though  there  be  insufficient  land  available  for  outdoor 
gardening. 

When  the  conditions  are  such  that  all  the  garden  work  can  be 

carried  on  at  the  school  as  a  part  of  the  regular  class  exercises,  it 

is  suggested  that  there  be  one  practical  exercise  (Fig.  193)  per 

week,  besides  incidental  items  in  the  care  of  the  plants  from  day 

324 


LIST  OF  PRACTICAL  EXERCISES 


325 


to  day,  such  as  opening  and  closing  the  hotbeds  and  watering  the 
plants.  After  the  hotbeds  are  started  it  is  a  good  plan  to  assign 
their  care  to  certain  students  for  a  definite  period,  usually  for  one 
week  at  a  time. 

The  following  list  of  practical  exercises*  is  suggested  for 
schools  equipped  with  land  and  tools,  as  well  as  hotbeds, 
for  the  garden  work.  In  localities  where  outdoor  gardening 
normally  commences  about  April  1,  the  preliminary  work 
in  the  subject  should  begin  before  the  middle  of  February.     The 


Fig.  193. — Class  in  vegetable  gardening,  University  of  Illinois. 

dates  given  below  are  of  course  only  approximate,  since  the  date 
for  a  given  exercise  will  have  to  be  varied  from  year  to  year  to 
meet  local  conditions.  The  notations  in  parenthses  indicate 
team  woik  or  other  special  labor  that  must  be  done  in  preparation 
for  the  class  of  exercise  following. 

(Have  manure  hauled  for  hotbeds). 


1.  February  11. 

2.  February  18. 


-Draw  plans  for  gardens. 

-Place  manure  in  hotbeds.    Set  up  hotbed  frames. 


*  Adapted  from  report  of  sub-committee  on  courses  in  vegetable  gardening, 
presented  by  the  author  at  the  annual  meeting  of  the  Society  for  Horticultural 
Science,  Washington,  D.  C,  November  19,  1913. 


326  SUGGESTIONS  FOR  LABORATORY  WORK 

3.  February  25. — Mix  soil  for  flats.  Plant  seeds  of  head  lettuce,  cabbage, 
and  celery  in  flats.    Plant  seeds  of  various  vegetables  for  study  of  seedlings. 

4.  March  4. — Clean,  repair,  and  place  hotbed  sash. 

(Have  soil  hauled  for  hotbeds). 

5.  March  11. — Shift  seedlings  of  lettuce  and  cabbage  to  other  flats; 
and  place  flats  in  hotbeds.    Sow  tomato  and  pepper  seed  in  flats. 

6.  March  18. — Study  vegetable  seedlings. 

7.  March  25. — Shift  tomato  and  pepper  seedlings  to  other  flats. 

(Have  land  plowed  and  fitted,  and  gardens  staked  out.) 

8.  April  1. — Prepare  soil  and  plant  cool  season  crops  in  the  open,  as  fol- 
lows: Potatoes,  peas,  radishes,  spinach,  kohlrabi,  turnip,  leaf  lettuce  seed, 
onion  seed,  onion  sets. 

9.  April  8. — Study  and  identify  vegetable  seeds.  Shift  celery  seedlings 
to  other  flats  and  place  in  hotbed. 

10.  April  15. — Finish  planting  cool  season  crops:  Beets,  carrots,  parsnips 
parsley,  Swiss  chard;  transplant  head  lettuce  and  cabbage  into  the  garden. 
Shift  tomatoes  and  peppers  into  the  spent  hotbeds  from  which  the  cabbage 
and  lettuce  are  removed. 

11.  April  22. — Cultivate  all  crops  and  observe  seedlings. 

(Have  unplanted  land  disked  and  harrowed.) 

12.  April  29. — Plant  string  beans  and  sweet  corn.    Hoe  everything. 

13.  May  6. — Hoe  and  weed  everything. 

(Have  unplanted  land  harrowed.) 

14.  May  13. — Transplant  tomatoes  and  peppers  into  the  garden.  Plant 
lima  beans,  cucumbers,  squashes,  and  other  vine  crops. 

15.  May  20. — Thin  and  weed  beets,  carrots,  parsnips,  parsley,  onions, 
Swiss  chard,  kohlrabi  and  turnips. 

16.  May  27. — Transplant  celery.  Till  the  entire  garden  and  make 
observations  on  the  various  crops. 


APPENDIX 

Composition  of  Vegetables 
The  chemical  composition  of  a  number  of  vegetables  is  given 
in  the  following  table.  It  will  be  seen  that,  in  general,  vegetables 
are  high  in  water  content,  and,  with  few  exceptions,  rather  low 
in  total  nutrients.  However,  their  food  value  is  not  determined 
entirely  by  the  percentages  of  protein,  fat  and  carbohydrates  they 
contain.  They  furnish  needed  bulk  to  the  diet,  and  stimulate 
the  appetite  by  reason  of  their  pleasant  flavors.  The  mineral 
salts  and  vitamins  they  contain  are  very  beneficial  to  the  system. 
Table  V.— Chemical  Composition  of  Vegetables  * 


Car- 

Fuel 

SVater 

Protein 

Fat 

bohy- 
drates 

Ash 

value 
per  lb. 

P.ct. 

P.ct. 

P.ct. 

P.ct. 

P.ct. 

Calories 

94.0 

1.8 

0.2 

3.3 

0.7 

105 

12.6 

22.5 

1.8 

59.6 

3.5 

1605 

68.5 

7.1 

0.7 

22.0 

1.7 

570 

89.2 

2.3 

0.3 

7.4 

0.8 

195 

87.5 

1.6 

0.1 

9.7 

1.1 

215 

91.5 

1.6 

0.3 

5.6 

1.0 

145 

88.2 

1.1 

0.4 

9.3 

1.0 

210 

92.3 

1.8 

0.5 

4.7 

0.7 

140 

94.5 

1.1 

0.1 

3.3 

1.0 

85 

87.1 

4.5 

0.6 

6.3 

1.5 

225 

75.4 

3.1 

1.1 

19.7 

0.7 

470 

95.4 

0.8 

0.2 

3.1 

0.5 

80 

81.4 

2.4 

1.0 

10.6 

4.6 

285 

92.9 

1.2 

0.3 

5.1 

0.5 

130 

91.1 

2.0 

0.1 

5.5 

1.3 

145 

91.8 

1.2 

0.5 

5.8 

0.7 

150 

94.7 

1.2 

0.3 

2.9 

0.9 

90 

90.2 

1.6 

0.2 

7.4 

0.6 

175 

87.6 

1.6 

0.3 

9.9 

0.6 

225 

83.0 

1.6 

0.5 

13.5 

1.4 

300 

74.6 

7.0 

0.5 

16.9 

1.0 

465 

78.3 

2.2 

0.1 

18.4 

1.0 

385 

69.0 

1.8 

0.7 

27.4 

1.1 

570 

93.1 

1.0 

0.1 

5.2 

0.6 

120 

91.8 

1.3 

0.1 

5.8 

1.0 

135 

94.4 

0.6 

0.7 

3.6 

0.7 

105 

88.9 

1.3 

0.2 

8.5 

1.1 

190 

92.3 

2.1 

0.3 

3.2 

2.1 

110 

88.3 

1.4 

0.5 

9.0 

0.8 

215 

94.3 

0.9 

0.4 

3.9 

0.5 

105 

89.6 

1.3 

0.2 

8.1 

0.8 

185 

Asparagus,  as  purchased 

Beans,  dried,  as  purchased 

Beans,  Lima,  fresh,  edible  portion  . 

Beans,  string,  edible  portion 

Beets,  fresh,  edible  portion 

Cabbage,  edible  portion 

CarrotB,  fresh,  edible  portion 

Cauliflower,  as  purchased 

Celery,  edible  portion 

Collards,  edible  portion 

Corn,  green,  edible  portion 

Cucumbers,  edible  portion 

Dandelion  greens,  as  purchased 

Eggplant,  edible  portion 

Kohlrabi,  edible  portion  

Leeks,  edible  portion 

Lettuce,  edible  portion 

Okra,  edible  portion 

Onions,  fresh,  edible  portion 

Parsnips,  edible  portion 

Peas,  green,  edible  portion 

Potatoes,  Irish,  edible  portion 

Potatoes,  sweet,  edible  portion 

Pumpkin,  edible  portion 

Radishes,  edible  portion 

Rhubarb,  edible  portion 

Rutabagas,  edible  portion 

Spinach,  fresh,  as  purchased 

Squash,  edible  portion 

Tomatoes,  fresh,  as  purchased 

Turnips,  edible  portion 


*  Adapted  from  Bulletin  28,  Office  of  Experiment  Stations,  U.  S.  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture. 

327 


328  APPENDIX 

VITAMINS    IN    VEGETABLES 

The  healthf  ulness  of  vegetables  in  the  human  diet  has  long  been 
recognized.  Until  very  recent  years,  however,  their  beneficial 
influence  was  not  fully  explained.  It  has  now  been  definitely 
determined  that  many  vegetables  are  rich  in  the  newly  discovered 
vitamins,  which  are  essential  to  the  health  and  normal  develop- 
ment of  the  human  body.  The  existence  of  three  different  kinds 
of  vitamins  is  generally  admitted  by  scientists,  and  there  is 
possibly  a  fourth  kind.  The  three  known  kinds  are  designated  as 
vitamin  A,  B,  and  C  respectively.  Each  has  a  different  function. 
Vitamin  A  is  essential  to  the  growth  of  children  and  its  absence 
from  the  diet  is  likely  to  result  in  a  disease  of  the  eyes.  Vitamin  B 
is  essential  to  the  proper  functioning  of  certain  glands  of  the  body 
and  its  absence  from  the  diet  causes  beri-beri  and  other  diseases 
of  the  nerves.  Vitamin  C  is  essential  to  general  well  being  and 
is  required  to  prevent  scurvy. 

In  the  accompanying  chart,*  the  relative  amounts  of  the  three 
different  vitamins  in  various  vegetables  and  certain  other  pro- 
ducts are  indicated  by  the  lengths  of  the  different  bars.  It  will  be 
noted  that  cabbage,  carrots,  lettuce,  spinach,  and  tomatoes  are 
especially  rich  in  vitamins. 


APPENDIX  329 


Cabbage iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii^WTOW^ 

Apples mmm^^-\] 


Beets li  II 1 11  ik '■■^■■■^v--] 

Bread  (white) ^ 

Bread  (whole  flour) lilll»ff^M£3 

Butter IlliiiilliillliHiiiiiiiiiiiiiil] 

Carrots lllllllllllllillllHIlltm&M^- 

Cauliflower II II  111  111  I II II  IMM^U^ 

Celery kmmmtt 

Chard 

Eggs 

Lean  Meat ._ 

Lettuce 

Milk  (whole) 

Onions 

Oranges 

Parsnips \\\\\\\mwmu*fii 

Peas IIIIIIIK^^W^-avv;:;>v:v:-:-x| 

Potatoes \\\\\wjimim-,y,:<^i 

Sweet  Potatoes llllllllllllllllllllllll^^ 

Spinach ll1" ' mmmm-1. 


llllllllllllllllk»«»fi^:v:-:v--.---.-----. 

1 

IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIBW$$^:^vv.] 

l»«««««^:v::V:::/./-:-::^ 

IIIIIIII^W^^^:--.^-,-:-.:'-,: 

S:<?;v«l 

Tomatoes lllllllllllllHr#^^^^^■•^^^^^^^•^-^^^^■■•^■IIIII3 

Yeast  Cake imtmm 

imwrm  Vitamin  A  mm  Vitamin  B  EZSS3  Vitamin  C 


*  This  chart  is  based  on  information  contained  in  Bulletin  176  of  the 
Arkansas  Agricultural  Experiment  Station.  An  arbitrary  length  of  bar  has 
been  assumed  to  represent  each  of  the  adjectives  used  in  that  publication  to 
indicate  the  relative  vitamin  content  of  the  different  products,  viz.:  little, 
fair,  rich,  very  rich. 


330 


APPENDIX 


Table  VI. — Quantities  of  Plant  Food  Elements  Contained  in  Different  Vegetables* 


Vegetable 


Asparagus 

Beans,  dry 

Beets 

Cabbage 

Carrots 

Cauliflower 

Celery 

Corn,  sweet,  kernels 

Cucumber 

Horse-radish 

Kohlrabi 

Lettuce 


Nitro- 

Phos- 

Potas- 

gen 

phorus 

sium 

P.  ct. 

P.  ct. 

P.  ct. 

0.29 

0.035 

0.240 

4.08 

0.528 

1.070 

0.24 

0.039 

0.365 

0.38 

0.048 

0.356 

0.16 

0.039 

0.423 

0.13 

0.070 

0.298 

0.24 

0.096 

0.630 

0.46 

0.030 

0.199 

0.16 

0.052 

0.199 

0.36 

0.030 

0.963 

0.48 

0.118 

0.356 

0.23 

0.030 

0.307 

Vegetable 


Onion 

Parsnip 

Peas,  dry.  .  .  . 
Potato,  Irish. 
Potato,  sweet 
Pumpkin 

Radish 

Rhubarb.  .  .  . 

Rutabaga 

Spinach 

Tomato 

Turnip 


Nitro- 

Phos- 

gen 

phorus 

P.  ct. 

P.  ct. 

0.14 

0.017 

0.22 

0.083 

3.58 

0.366 

0.21 

0.030 

0.24 

0.035 

0.11 

0.070 

0.19 

0.022 

0.13 

0.009 

0.19 

0.052 

0.49 

0.070 

0.16 

0.022 

0.18 

0.044 

Potas- 
sium 


P.  ci. 

0.083 
0.514 
0.838 
0.240 
0.307 
0.074 
0.133 
0.299 
0.406 
0.224 
0.224 
0.323 


*  Adapted  principally  from  Yearbook  of  the  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture,   1894. 


Table  VII. — Composition  and  Value  of  Fertilizing  Materials 


Composition 

Value  of  the  plant  food  elements 
in  a  ton  of  the  material 

Nitro- 
gen 

Phos- 
phorus 

Potas- 
sium 

Nitro- 
gen 

Phos- 
phorus 

Potas- 
sium 

Total 

Fresh  farm  manure 

P.  ct. 

0.5 

15.5 

20.0 

14.0 

5.5 

7.1 

4.0 

1.0 

2.0 

P.  ct. 
0.1 

0J5 

1.35 

9.0 
12.5 

7.0 
12.5 

6.25 

0.5 

P.  ct. 
0.4 

1.5 

$1.50 
46.50 
60.00 
42.00 
16.50 
21.30 
12f 

$0.24 
L80 

3.24 
18.00 
25.00 
16.S0 

7.50 
15.00 

U20 

$0.48 

i!o8 

1.80 

5  U00 

51.00 

6.00 

$2.22 
46.50 

Sulfate  of  ammonia 

60.00 
42.00 

19.38 

26.34 

30.00 

Steamed  bone  meal 

Acidulated  bone  meal 

Raw  rock  phosphate 

Acid  phosphate 

Muriate  of  potash 

Sulfate  of  potash 

Unbleached  hardwood  ashes 

42^ 

42.^ 

5.( 

i 

3.00 
6.00 

28.00 
22.80 

7.50 
15.00 
51.00 
51.00 

7.20 

*  Adapted  principally  from  Hopkins'  "Soil  Fertility  and  Permanent  Agri- 
culture," published  by  Ginn  &  Company,  Boston.  The  values  are  based  upon 
the  following  prices:  Nitrogen,  15  cents;  potassium,  6  cents;  phosphorus  in  raw 
rock  phosphate,  3  cents,  in  bone  meal,  10  cents,  and  in  acid  phosphate,  12 
cents,  per  pound. 


Table  VIII. — Number  of  Vegetable  Seeds 

per  Ounce* 

Number 

of  varieties 

weighed 

Number  of  seeds  pe 

r  ounce 

Kind  of  vegetable 

Average 

Heaviest 
variety 

Lightest 
variety 

1 

13 
2 

7 
1 
14 
6 
3 
1 
4 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 

11 
1 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 

20 
9 
2 
4 

15 
5 
3 

10 
9 
1 
5 

34 
1 
1 
1 
7 
7 
8 
1 

40 
5 
3 

1,420 

94 

23.5 

1,504 

8,733 

7,670 

20,560 

13,257 

50,266 

87,653 

15,873 

7,262 

31,602 

183,770 

14,630 

1,194 

8,300 

6,055 

16,584 

9,304 

8,737 

11,033 

22,664 

932 

18,632 

487 

7,502 

15,032 

6,371 

102 

4,450 

10,220 

160 

2,743 

9.360 

3,400 

2,400 

2,609 

173 

131 

125,000 

10,934 

13,773 

245 

"'60 

22 

1,070 

'  6,"4i4 

16,560 
8,128 

58^940 

1J004 

li,740 

8,300 
7,214 

17/276 

788 

'  6^690 

"'88 

"'99 
2,064 

'"]12 

7,623 
10,330 

252 

25 

2,200 

8,715 

28,350 

16,444 

120,639 

Cucumber,  including  Gherkin 
Dill 

4,248 

21,428 

10,308 

10,560 

29,905 

1,171 

Mustard 

Okra 

8,077 

157 

Pe-Tsai 

283 

4,754 

Sage 

Salsif  y 

Spinach 

Squash 

Sweet  corn 

Thyme 

Tomato 

Turnip 

"475' 

:  20^060 
19,027 

♦This  table  is  compiled  from  data  secured  by  my  student,  Haig  Beloian, 
from  actual  weighings  of  the  seed.  One  hundred  seeds  of  each  variety  were 
counted  out  and  weighed  on  a  delicate  chemical  balance.  Then  the  number  of 
seeds  per  ounce  was  calculated  from  these  weights.  In  the  case  of  the  more 
common  vegetables  a  number  of  varieties  were  weighed.  It  will  be  noted  that 
there  were  large  differences  in  the  number  of  seeds  in  an  ounce  of  different 
varieties  of  the  same  vegetable.  There  would  undoubtedly  be  marked  dif- 
ferences also  in  the  number  of  seeds  per  ounce  in  different  samples  of  the  same 
variety  grown  under  different  conditions,  or  differently  graded  when  prepared 
for  market. 


332 


APPENDLX 


Table  XL — Quantity  of  Seed  Required  for  Planting  a  Given  Area* 


Per  100  feet  of  row 


Number 


Weight 


Asparagus  (seed) 

Beans,  dwarf  string 

Beans,  large-seeded  bush  lima.. 

Beans,  D^eer's  bush  lima 

Beans,  Henderson  \s  bush  lima 

Beets 

Cabbage,  for  transplanting 

Carrot 

Cauliflower,  for  transplanting  .  . 

Celery,  for  transplanting 

Cucumber 

Eggplant,  for  transplanting 

Endive 

Kale 

Kohlrabi 

Leek 

Lettuce 

Muskmelon 

Mustard 

Okra 

Onion  seed 

Onion  sets 

Parsley 

Parsnip 

Peas 

Pepper,  for  transplanting 

Pumpkin 

Radish 

Rutabaga 

Salsify 

Spinach 

Squash,  summer  bush 

Squash,  large  winter 

Sweet  corn 

Tomato,  for  transplanting 

Turnip 

Watermelon 


1400 

400 

2.50 

240 

240 

750 

150 

2000 

260 

1200 

250 

150 

1600 

1600 

1600 

1100 

2200 

225 

1800 

500 

1500 

400 

3000 

3000 

800 

225 

120 

3000 

900 

1200 

2500 

200 

120 

130 

100 

1300 

125 


1      oz. 

4  to  6  oz, 

%    lb. 


o  oz. 

3  oz. 

V2  oz. 

.02  oz. 


OZ. 


.02  oz. 
.02  oz. 
%  oz. 
.025  oz. 
.1      oz. 


oz. 
oz. 
oz. 
oz. 
oz. 
lbs. 


.05    oz. 


1  oz. 

.1  oz. 

}/2  OZ. 

1  OZ. 

Yz  oz. 

%  oz. 


1 

.01 

.1 


20    lbs. 

1  to  \]4  bu. 

2  bu. 

1  bu. 
Y2    bu. 

8  to  12  lbs. 
H   lb. 

2  to  3  lbs. 
lA    lb. 

3  oz. 
1*4  to  1^  lbs. 

3  oz. 

2  lbs. 
2V2  lbs. 

4  lbs. 


l^to  \y2  lbs. 

3      lbs. 

9      lbs. 

4  to    5  lbs. 

25  to  30  bu. 

3  to    4  lbs. 

6  to    9  lbs. 

2Y2  to  3H  bu. 

H    lb. 

3      lbs. 

25  to  30    lbs. 

1  to  1  Vo  lbs. 
8  to  10  lbs. 

25  to  30  lbs. 
3      lbs. 
3      lbs. 
8      lbs. 

1  oz. 

2  to  3  lbs. 

2  lbs. 


*This  table  serves  not  only  as  a  guide  for  the  purchase  of  seeds  when  a  given 
area  is  to  be  planted,  but  also  indicates  the  proper  number  of  seeds  to  be 
sown  per  foot  of  row  in  the  case  of  seeds  sown  in  drills,  since  the  number  of 
seeds  to  be  sown  per  foot  would  be  one-hundredth  of  the  number  indicated  in 
the  second  column  of  the  table.  In  the  case  of  cabbage,  cauliflower,  celery, 
eggplant,  pepper,  and  tomato,  the  number  of  seeds  given  indicates  the  number 
that  should  be  planted  in  flats  or  hotbeds  to  supply  enough  plants  to  trans- 
plant into  the  field  in  a  row  100  feet  long.  Ample  allowance  is  made  for  dis- 
carding; all  inferior  plants.  The  variations  in  quantities  of  seed  given  for  plant- 
ing an  acre  are  due  principally  to^feriations  in  distances  between  rows. 


*% 


MOmTY  LIBRARY 


INDEX 


Acreage  and  value  of  vegetable  crops 

in  the  United  States,  322 
Adaptation  of  varieties  of  tomatoes, 

248 
Age  of  plants  for  transplanting,  49 
Animal  manures,  26 
Aphis,  melon,  219 
Applying   spray   materials,    methods 

of,  92 
Arrangement  of  vegetables  in  farm- 
er's home  garden,  267 
Arsenate  of  lead,  91 
Artichoke,  burr,  201 

flower  bud  of,  202 

globe,  201 

Jerusalem,  202 

propagation  by  suckers,  202 

winter  protection  of,  201 
Asparagus,  193 

blanched,  198 

cutting  the  crop,  198 

dressing  with  manure,  196,  198 

knife,  198 

plantation  in  midsummer,  197 

planting,  195 

ready  for  market,  194 

root,  196 

soil  for,  195 

starting  the  plantation,  193 

tillage  of  an  established  planta- 
tion, 197 

tillage  the  first  season,  195 

Back-yard  garden,  8 

plan  for,  273 
Baits,  poisoned,  84 
Baskets  of  melons,  286 
Beans,  chapter  on,  205 

dry  shell,  210 

dwarf  Lima,  209 

green  shell,  207 

"Horticultural  Lima,"  210 

Lima,  207 

other  types  of  green  shell,  209 

planting,  206 

pole  Lima,  208 

string,  205 

temperature  requirements  of 
Lima,  207 


Beans,  wax,  205 

weevils  in,  85 
Beetle,  potato,  87 

striped,  217 
Beets,  144 

pit  of,  opened  in  March,  309 
Bermuda  onions,  172 
"Black  leaf  40"  for  melon  lice,  219 
Blanched  asparagus,  198 
Blanching  cauliflower,  122 

celery,  137 

sea-kale,  203 
"Boats"  used  in  tillage  of  melons, 

228 
Bordeaux  mixture,  90 
Borecole,  153 

Boxes,  load  of  vegetable,  285 
Broccoli,  129 

plant,  130 
Brussels  sprouts,  130 

climatic  requirements,    130, 

131 
storage  of,  310 
Bug,  squash,  88 
Bunching     vegetables     for     market, 

286 
Bunch  of  kohlrabi,  as  marketed,  287 

onions,  green,  179 
Burr  artichoke,  201 

Cabbage,  arrangement  of,  for  winter 
storage,  308 
diseases  of,  127 
early,  117 
field,  126 

ready  for  irrigating,  38 
good  and  poor  types,  17,  18 
late,  124 

climatic  requirements,  124 
growing  the  plants,  124 
plant  wrapped  with  stiff  paper 
as   a  protection   against   cut- 
worms, 84 
precautions  for  successful  trans- 
planting, 125 
savoy, 125 
.    sections  of,  119 
storage  of,  308 
worms,  126 

333 


334 


INDEX 


Cannery,     growing     vegetables     for 

the,  5 
Canning  factories,  peas  for,  112 
Care  of  plants  under  glass,  67 

of   vegetables   between   harvest- 
ing and  marketing,  279 
Carrots,  144,  146 
Cart  for  transporting  vegetables  from 

field  to  packing  shed,  284 
Cauliflower,  blanching  the  heads,  122 

early,  120 

good  and  poor  heads  illustrated, 
120 

late,  128 

plants  in  flat,  121 
Celeriac,  culture,  141,  142 
Celery  as  dug  from  field,  139 

banked  with  earth,  138 

blanching,  137 

blanching  with  boards,  137 

chapter  on,  133 

chief     difficulties     in     growing, 
133 

culture,  new,  141 

distance  of  planting,  136 

early  and  late  crops,  134 

filled,  9 

German,  142 

in  irrigated  regions,  137 

"new  celery  culture,"  140 

newly  transplanted,  54 

packed  in  box  for  winter  storage, 
310 

planting  in  trenches,  136 

plants,  growing,  134 

root,  142 

seedlings,  135 

soil  and  climate,  133 

storage  of,  309 

transplanting,  135 

turnip-rooted,  culture,  141,  142 
Chard,  153 

or  Swiss  chard,  152 
Cheese  cloth,  seed-bed  screened  with, 

85 
Chemical  composition  of  vegetables, 

327 
Chewing  insects,  87 
Chives,  184  _ 

Cities,  consigning  to  large,  298 
Citron,  234 
City  garden,  272 

kinds  of  vegetables  for,  272 
plan  of,  273 
tillage  in  a,  274 
Classification  of  vegetables,  96 


Clay  soils,  10 

how  improved,  10 
Cleaning  seeds,  20 

Climate,  influence  on  vegetable  grow- 
ing, 4 
Climatic    requirements    of    Brussels 
sprouts,  130 
of  late  cabbage,  124 
Cloth-covered  coldframe,  59,  66 
Club  root  of  cabbage,  127 
Coldframe,  cloth-covered,  59,  66 

description  of,  58 
Coldframes,  construction  of,  66 
Collards,  155 
Commercial  fertilizers,  30 
effects  of,  31 

time  and  method  of  appli- 
cation, 32 
Companion  cropping,  260 
Composition  of  vegetables,  327 
Compost,  26 
pile,  27 
Compressed  air  knapsack  sprayer,  92 
Conditions    essential     to    successful 
storage,  305 
for  using  green  manure,  30 
Conservation  of  moisture,  42 
Consigning  to  large  cities,  298 
Construction  of  coldframes,  66 
Controlling  insects  and  diseases  that 
attack  vegetable  crops,  chapter  on, 
83 
Cool  season  crops,  44 

classified,  96 
that  quickly  reach  edi- 
ble  maturity,    chap- 
ter on,  98 
Corn,  pop,  213 

curing,  214 
harvesting,  214 
planting,  214 
Corn  salad,  culture  of,  100 
sweet,  212 

culture  of,  213 
planting,  212 
sugar,  212 
Cos  lettuce,  117,  118 
Cowpeas  for  green  manure,  28 
Crates  of  melons,  293 
Cress,  garden,  100 

upland,  159 
Crop,  selling  the,  294 
Cropping,  companion,  260 
succession,  261 
systems  of  intensive,  260 
Crops,  cool  season,  44 


INDEX 


335 


Crops,  for  forcing,  selection  of,  315 

rotation  of,  83 

warm  season,  45 
Cross-section  of  manure  hotbed,  63 
Cucumber  beetle,  218 

beetles,  217 

slicing,  235 
Cucumbers,  235 

forcing,  315 

soil  for,  236 
Cultivation  of  lettuce,  116 

of  muskmelons,  227 

of  sweet  potatoes,  256 

of  tomatoes,  246 

of  watermelons,  232 
Cultivator,  narrow-tooth,  40,  269 
Cultural  requirements  for  eggplant, 

251 
Culture  of  squashes,  240 

of  sweet  corn,  213 
Curing  onions,  169 

onion  sets,  178,  179 

pop  corn,  214 

seeds,  20 

shed,  onion,  171 
Cushaw  squash,  238 
Cutting  the  asparagus  crop,  198 

Dandelion,  156 
Depth  of  planting,  75 

influence  of  season  on,  77 
in  relation  to  size  and  struc- 
ture of  seed,  76 
in  relation  to  type  and  condi- 
tion of  soil,  76 
Dibber,  55 

Difficulties  in  growing  celery,  133 
Digging  parsnips,  147 
Dirt  bands  for  transplanting  musk- 
melons, 225,  226 
Disk  harrow,  71 
Diseases,  fungous,  89 
of  cabbage,  127 

that  attack  vegetable  crops,  83 
of  tomatoes,  249 
transmitted  on  seed,  85 
Distance  of  planting,  77 
celery,  136 

in  relation  to  size  of  plant, 
78 
Distant  markets,  shipping  to,  297 
Drainage,  relation  of,  to  germination, 

75 
Drill,  seed,  81 
Dry  shell  beans,  210 
Dusting,  95 
Dwarf  Lima  beans,  209 


Early  and  late  crops  of  celery,  134 
cabbage,  117 
culture,  118 
types  of,  119 
cauliflower,  120 
potatoes,  186 
Eastern  Market,  Detroit,  Michigan, 

295 
Economic  questions  involved  in  trans- 
planting, 48 
Effect  of  commercial  fertilizers,  31 
Eggplant,  251 

cultural  requirements  of,  251 
fruit  of  the,  252 
growing  the  plants,  251 
protection  from  insects,  253 
transplanting,  251 
Elements  of  plant  food,  25 
Endive,  159 

ready  for  market,  159 
Express  shipments  to  small  cities,  297 
Extent  of  vegetable  growing  in  the 

United  States,  chapter  on,  319 
Extremes  of  moisture,  228 
Factors    influencing    the    quality    of 

vegetables,  chapter  on,  12 
Fall  plowing,  advantages  of,  70 

Farmer's  garden,  265 
home  garden,  6 

arrangement    of    vege- 
tables in,  267 
labor-saving      methods 

in,  268 
plan  of,  265 
vegetable  garden,  7 
vegetable    garden,    diagram    of, 
266 
Fertilizers,  commercial,  30 
composition  of,  329 
effects  of  commercial,  31 
purchasing,  31 
quantities  to  use,  33 
Field  mice,  poisoning,  223 
Fire  hotbed,  65 

hotbeds,  construction  of,  64 
Firming  soil  about  roots  when  trans- 
planting, 51 
Flat  of  cauliflower  plants,  121 
Flats,  preparing  soil  for,  72 
Forcing  cucumbers,  316 
lettuce,  315 
radishes,  315 

selection  of  crops  for,  315 
tomatoes,  316 
vegetables,  chapter  on,  312 
Formulas  for  spray  mixtures,  90 


336 


INDEX 


Frame  for  hotbed,  63 
Freezing,  root  crops  that  stand,  146 
Freshness  of  vegetables,  12 
Fruit  of  the  eggplant,  252 
Fumigation  in  greenhouses,  86 
Fungous  diseases,  89 

of  potatoes,  189 
growing  in  tissue  of  leaf,  89 
Fusarium  wilt  of  tomatoes,  250 

Garden,  best  location  for,  10 

cress,  100 

peas,  109 

seed  drill,  81 

suburban,  plan  of,  270 

the  city,  272 

the  farmer's,  265 

village  or  suburban,  269 
Gardening  in  a  city  back-yard,  8 

market,  1 
Garlic,  181 

bulbs,  183 
German  celery,  142 
Germination,  conditions  essential  to, 
74 

moisture  necessary  for,  74 

relation  of  drainage  to,  75 

standards  of,  22 

temperatures  for,  75 

tests,  21 
Gherkins,  236 

Gherkin  vine  and  fruit,  236 
Glass,  care  of  plants  under,  67 

tillage  of  plants  under,  68 

use  of  in  vegetable  growing,  58 

watering  plants  under,  68 
Globe  artichoke,  201 

turnip,  107 
Grades  of  melons,  290,  291 
Grading  vegetables  for  market,  288 
Green  bunch  onions,  179 
Greenhouse,  modern,  59 

troubles,  314 
Greenhouses,  60 

fumigation  in,  86 

interior  view,  314 
Green  manure,  conditions  for  using, 
30 

manures,  27 

manuring,  plants  suitable  for,  28 

onions  for  late  use,  181 

shell  beans,  207 

other  types,  209 
Greens  and  salad  plants  that  endure 
heat,  chapter  on,  152 

spring,  101 


Greens  that  endure  heat,  152 
Growing  vegetables  for  local  market, 

2, 
Gumbo,  215 

Hardy  vegetables,  43 
Harrow,  disk,  71 
Meeker,  164 
spike  tooth,  72 
Harvesting    and    curing  onion  sets. 
178 
and    marketing,    care    of    vege- 
tables between,  279 
chapter  on,  278 
horse-radish,  150 
onions,  168 

modern  method,  170 
period,  the,  178 
pop  corn,  214 
potatoes,  192 
rhubarb,  200 
spinach,  method  of,  102 
sweet  potatoes,  256 
Head  lettuce,  114 

cultural  requirements,   111, 
115,  116 
Heat,  greens  that  endure,  152 

salad  plants  that  endure,  157 
Hellebore,  white,  92 
Home  garden,  varieties  of  vegetables 
for,  274 
production  of  seed,  17 
use,    storage    of    vegetables    in 

small  quantities  for,  308 
vegetable    garden,    chapter    on, 
265 
gardens,  types  of,  6 
growing,  6 
Horse-radish,  148 
harvesting,  150 
planting,  150 
propagation  of,  148 
Hotbed,     cross-section    of    simplest 
form,  63 
described,  58 
frame,  63 

frame  for,  figure,  62 
of     head     lettuce     approaching 

maturity,  62 
preparation  of  manure  for,  60 
simplest  form  of,  61 
Hotbeds,  fire,  64 
manure,  60 
Hothouse  tomatoes,  bench  of,  317 

vegetables,  marketing,  312 
Humid  regions,  water  supply  in,  35 


INDEX 


337 


Insect  enemies  of  potatoes,  189 
Insects    and    diseases    that    attack 
vegetable  crops,  83 
chewing,  87 
mechanical  means  of  controlling, 

84 
protection  of  eggplant  from,  253 
sucking,  SS 
Intensive   cropping,    combination   of 
two  systems,  262 
relative  merits  of  different 

systems,  262 
systems  of,  260 
Irrigated  regions,  planting  celery  in, 

137 
Irrigating,  methods  of,  40 

onions,  37 
Irrigation,  38 

of  melons,  39 

old  plan  of,  37 

overhead,  37 

recent  development  in,  37 

Skinner  system,  36,  37 

water,  sources  of,  39 

Jerusalem  artichoke,  202 

Kale,  153,  154 

Kinds  of  vegetables  for  a  city  garden, 

272 
Knife,  asparagus,  198 
Kohlrabi,  106,  108 
as  marketed,  287 

Laboratory   work,    chapter   on   sug- 
gestions for,  324 
Labor-saving  methods,  268 
Land  for  onions,  163 
Large  cities,  consigning  to,  298 
Late  cabbage,  124 

and   similar  crops,   chapter 

on,  124 
climatic  requirements,  124 
cauliflower,  128 
Lead,  arsenate  of,  91 
Leaf  lettuce,  culture,  98,  99 
Leeks,  181,  182 

storage  of,  310 
Lettuce,  cos,  117 
forcing,  315 
head,  114 

structure  of,  114 
houses,  interior  view,  314 
leaf,  98 

ready  for  cutting,  316 
screens  for  shading,  116 


Lettuce  seedlings,  flats  of,  115 
Lice,  melon,  219 
Lima  beans,  207 

bush,  207 

dwarf,  209 

pole,  208 

temperature    requirements 
of,  207 
Loading  platform  where  cantaloupes 

are  inspected,  301 
Loads  of  vegetables,  296 
Local  market,  advantages  of,  2 

produce  markets,  294 
Location  for  garden,  best,  10 
Longevity  of  vegetable  seeds,  22 

Manure,    applying    to    melon    hills, 
32 

dressing  asparagus  with,  196,  198 

four-horse  load  of,  29 

hotbed,  cross-section  of,  63 

hotbeds,  construction  of,  60 

making  heavy  application,  33 

quantities  to  use,  33 

spreader  in  operation,  31 

time  and  method  of  application, 
32 
Manures,  animal,  26 

compost,  26 

green,  27 
Map  of  the  United  States  indicating 
certain  vegetable-producing  states, 
321 
Marker,  sled,  SO 
Market  garden  near  Boston,  2 

gardening,  1 

local,  2 

preparation  of  vegetables  for,  284 
Marketing,  278 

hothouse  vegetables,  312 
Markets,  local,  294 

shipping  to  distant,  297 
Marrow,  vegetable,  238 
Maturity  of  vegetables,  relation  to 

quality,  13 
Mechanical     means     of    controlling 

insects,  84 
Meeker  harrow,  164 
Melon  aphis,  219 

lice,  219 

preserving,  234 

rust  229 
Melons,  baskets  of,  286 

crates  of,  293 

grades  of,  290,  291 

grading,  289 


338 


INDEX 


Methods  of  applying  spray  materials, 
92 
of  irrigating,  40 
of  sowing  seeds,  81 
of  transplanting,  55 
Mice,  poisoning  field,  223 
Moisture,  conservation  of,  42 

conserving  by  thorough  tillage, 

41 
extremes  of,  228 

how    supplied    to   newly    trans- 
planted plants,  50 
influence    on    quality    of    vege- 
tables, 13 
means     of     insuring,     following 

transplanting,  51 
necessary  for  germination,  74 
requirements  of  onions,  162 
supply,  chapter  on,  35 
treatment  of  implanted  land  to 
conserve,  71 
Multiplier  onions,  180 
Muskmelon  growers  waiting  to  load 
their    melons    for    shipment, 
299 
vine  killed  by  rust,  230 

protected  by  spraying,  230 
Muskmelons,  220 
cultivation,  227 
field  of,  5 
good  hill  of,  221 
planting  the  seed,  223 
preparations  for  planting,  222 
soil  for,  220 
spraying,  94 
thinning  the  plants,  224 
time  of  planting,  221 
transplanting,  225,  226 
Mustard,  103 

Narrow-tooth  cultivator,  40,  269 
"New  celery  culture,"  141 
"New  onion  culture,"  172 
New  potatoes,  186 
New  Zealand  spinach,  155 
Nicotine  sulfate,  92 

for  melon  lice,  219 
Nitrate  of  soda,  30 
Nitrogen,  sources  of,  30 

Object  of  ventilation,  67 
Okra,  215 

Old  seed  should  be  tested,  23 
Onion  culture,  the  new,  172 

three  methods  compared,  174 

tools  used  in,  165 


Onion  culture,  curing  shed  and  storage 
house,  171 
group,  chapter  on,  162 
harvesting  attachment  for  wheel 

hoe,  169 
-like  plants,  181 

plants,   growing  for   transplant- 
ing, 173 
seed,  sowing,  164 
sets,  175 

curing  in  field,  179 
growing,  177 

harvesting  and  curing,  178 
planting,  176 
size  of,  175 
starting  into  growth  soon  after 
the  harvest,  170 
Onions,  162 

Bermuda,  172 

curing,  169 

from  sets  and  from  seed,  176 

care  and  disposition  of 
the  crop,  177 
good  and  poor,  167 
green  bunch,  179 
green,  for  late  use,  181 
■  growing  from  seed,  163 
growing  from  sets,  174 
harvesting,  168 
land  for,  163 
modern   method   of   harvesting, 

170 
multiplier,  180 
perennial,  180 
potato,  180 
properly  and  improperly  ripened, 

168 
storage  of,  311 

temperature    and    moisture    re- 
quirements of,  162 
thinned  and  unthinned,  167 
thinning,  166 
tillage  of,  165 
topping,  169 
transplanting,  172 
tree,  180 
types  of,  172 
weeding,  166 
well-cured  sample,  163 
Outdoor  cellar  for  storage  of  potatoes, 
307 
pit  of  beets  opened  in  March,  309 
Oyster  plant,  148 

Packages,  284 

Packing  shed  for  cantaloupes,  301 


INDEX 


339 


Packing  sheds,  279,  280,  282 

vegetables  for  market,  292 
Paris  green,  91 
Parsley,  157 

for  winter  use,  310 

plants  in  pots,  157 

under  field  conditions,  158 
Parsnips,  146 

digging,  147 

soil  for,  147 

thinning,  147 

tillage,  weeding  and  thinning  of, 
147 
Peas,  109,  110 

common  garden,  109 

for  canning  factories,  112 

size  of  plants,  111 

smooth-seeded,  110 

sugar,  112 

weevils  in,  85 

wrinkled,  109 
Pepper  grass,  100 
Peppers,  253 

several  varieties  of,  254 
Perennial  crops,  chapter  on,  193 

onions,  180 
Phosphorus,  sources  of,  3 
Picking  tomatoes,  248 
Pit  of  beets  opened  in  March,  309 
Plan  of  a  city  garden,  273 

of  farmer's  home  garden,  265 
Planker,  72 

Plant  food,  elements  of,  25,  329 
sources  of,  25 
supply,  chapter  on,  25 

size  of,  78 
Planting  asparagus,  195 

beans,  206 

depth  of,  75 

distance  of,  77 

horse-radish,  150 

muskmelon  seed,  223 

muskmelons,    preparations    for, 
222 
time  of,  221 

of  seeds,  chapter  on,  74 

onion  sets,  176 

pop  corn,  214 

potatoes,  187 

preparation  of  soil  for,  70 

preparing  soil  in  flats  for,  72 

rhubarb,  199 

sweet  corn,  212 
potatoes,  255 

time  of,  267,  304 

watermelons,  preparation  for,  231 


Plants,  care  of,  under  glass,  67 

character   of,  for   transplanting, 
49 

growing  celery,  134 
eggplant,  251 
late  cabbage,  124 
tomato,  244 

how    kept    from    suffering    for 
moisture  while  transplanting,  50 

shifting  young,  68 

suitable  for  green  manuring,  28 
Plowing,  fall,  70 
Poisoned  baits,  84 
Poisoning  field  mice,  223 
Pole  Lima  beans,  208 
Pop  corn,  213 

curing,  214 

harvesting,  214 

planting,  214 
Potassium,  sources  of,  31 
Potato  beetle,  87 

digger  in  operation,  191 

onions,  180 

planter  in  operation,  188 

sprayer  in  operation,  190 
Potatoes,  chapter  on,  186 

early,  186 

fungous  diseases  of,  189 

harvesting,  192 

insect  enemies  of,  189 

new,  186 

outdoor  cellar  for  storage  of,  307 

planting,  187 

soil  for,  187 

"straw,"  189 

sweet,  154 

tillage  of,  189 
Pot-grown  tomato  plant,  53 
Preface,  v 

Preface  to  Fourth  Edition,  iii 
Preparation  of  soil,  271 

for  planting,  chapter  on,  70 

of  vegetables  for  market,  284 
Preserving  melon,  234 
Principle  of  successful  transplanting,  49 
Principles  of  spraying,  72 
Produce  markets,  local,  294 
Production  of  good  seed,  17 
Propagation  of  artichoke,  202 

of  horse-radish,  148 

of  rhubarb,  199 

of  sea-kale,  203 

of  sweet  potatoes,  255 
Protection  of  eggplant  from  insects, 

253 
Pruning  tomatoes,  247 


340 


INDEX 


Pumpkins,  241 

storage  of,  311 
Purchasing  fertilizers,  31 

Quality  of  vegetables,  factors  influ- 
encing, 12 
influence    of    moisture    on, 

13 
influence  of  temperature  on, 

13 
influence  of  tillage  on,  14 
relation  of  maturity  to,  13 
Quantity  of  manure  and  fertilizer  to 

use,  33 
Quantities  of  seed  to  buy,  275 
Questions,  review   (see  end  of  each 
chapter) 

Radish,  extra  early,  104 
Strasburg,  105 
winter,  106 
Radishes,  culture  of,  103 
forcing,  315 
spring,  103 
summer,  104 
types  of,  103 
winter,  104 
Reasons  for  transplanting,  48 
Reducing  transpiration,  53 
Regulation  of  temperature,  313 
Removing  tops  from  seedlings  when 

transplanting,  54 
Repellents,  85 
Review  questions   (see  end  of  each 

chapter) 
Rhubarb,  199 

harvesting,  200 
planting,  199 
propagation  of,  199 
tillage  and  fertilizing  of,  200 
Roguing,  18 

Romaine,  culture,  117,  118 
Root  crops,  short  season,  103 
storage  of,  308 
that   endure  summer  heat, 

chapter  on,  144 
that  withstand   freezing  as 
well     as     summer     heat, 
146 
Roots,  firming  soil  about,  51 
Rotation  of  crops  in  relation  to  con- 
trol of  insects  and  diseases,  83 
Rotations  including  truck  crops,  4,  5 
Rust,  melon,  229 

of  tomatoes,  249 
Rutabagas,  108 


Salad,  corn,  100 

plants  that  endure  heat,  157 
Salads,  spring,  98 
Salsify,  148 

black,  148,  149 

Spanish,  148 
Sandy  soil,  9 
Savoy  cabbage,  125 
Scolymus,  148,  149 
Scorzonera,  148 

Screens  for  shading  lettuce,  116 
Sea-kale,  202 

blanching,  203 

propagation  of,  203 
Season,  importance  of,  46 

influence  of  on  depth  of  planting, 
77 
Seed,  diseases  transmitted  on,  85 

drill  in  operation,  81 

factors  essential  to  production  of 
good,  17 

home  production  of,  17 

quantities  to  buy,  275 

quantity  to,  plant  a  given  area,  331 

result  of  planting  unreliable,  16 

should  be  tested,  23 

size  and  structure  of,  in  relation 
to  depth  of  planting,  76 

supply,  chapter  on,  16 
sources  of,  16 

washing  tomato,  19 
Seed-bed  screened  with  cheese   cloth, 

85 
Seeding,  thickness  of,  79 

for  growing  onion  sets,  177 
Seeds,  cleaning  and  curing,  20 

germinate  at  different  tempera- 
tures, 75 

longevity  of,  22 

methods  of  sowing,  81 

number  per  ounce,  330 

planting,  74 

reliability  of,  20 

vitality  of,  21 
Seedsmen's  trial  grounds,  81 
Selection,    result    of    five    years'    in 

muskmelons,  18 
Selling  the  crop,  294 
Sets,  growing  ripe  onions  from,  174 

onion,  177 
Shallots.  183 
Sheds,  packing,  279 
Shell  beans,  dry,  210 

green,  207 
Shifting  young  plants,  68 
Shipments  to  small  cities,  297 
Shipping  to  distant  markets,  297 


INDEX 


341 


Short  season  root  crops,  103 

Sieve,  soil,  73 

Size  of  onion  sets,  175 

of  seed,  in  relation  to  depth  of 
planting,  76 

of  watermelons,  233 
Skimmer  system  of  irrigation,  37 
Sled  marker,  80 
Slicing  cucumber,  235 
Small   cities,    express    shipments  to, 

297 
Soil  and  location,  chapter  on,  9 

clay,  10 

firming  about  roots,  51 

for  asparagus,  195 

for  celery,  133 

for  cucumbers,  236 

for  muskmelons,  220 

for  parsnips,  147 

for  potatoes,  187 

influence  on  vegetable  growing,  4 

preparation,  271 
for  planting,  70 

preparing  for  planting  seeds  in 
flats  or  boxes,  72 

sandy,  9 

sieve,  73 

type  and  condition  in  relation  of 
depth  of  planting,  76 

when  in  workable  condition,  70 
Soils  suitable  for  gardening,  11 
Sources  of  irrigation  water,  39 

of  nitrogen,  30 

of  plant  food,  25 

of  potassium,  31 

of  water  supply,  35 
Sowing  onion  seed,  164 

seeds,  methods  of,  81 
Space  for  tillage,  77 
Spanish  salsify,  148,  149 
Spike-tooth  harrow,  72 
Spinach,  101 

method  of  harvesting,  102 

New  Zealand,  155,  156 

spring  and  fall-sown  crops  con- 
trasted, 102 

typical  plant,  101 
Spray  materials,  methods  of  applying, 
92 

mixtures,  forumlas  for,  90 
Sprayer,  compressed  air  knapsack,  92 

geared-power,  94 

potato,  190 
Spraying,  86 

eggplants,  93 

general  principles  of,  92 


Spraying  muskmelons,  94 

timeliness  in,  94 
Spring  greens,  101 
radishes,  103 
salads,  98 
Squash  bug,  88 

bush  form  of  summer,  237 
Cushaw,  238 
Perfect  Gem,  239 
winter  crookneck,  239 
winter,  238 
Squashes,  237 
culture,  240 
storage  of,  311 
types  of,  237 
Staked  tomatoes,  row  of,  247 
Staking  tomatoes,  246 
"Standard"  varieties,  14 
Standards  of  germination,  22 
Storage,  conditions  essential   te  suc- 
cessful, 305 
house  for  sweet  potatoes,  307 

onion,  171 
houses,  vegetable,  306 
in  small  quantities  for  home  use, 

308 
of  Brussels  sprouts,  310 
of  cabbage,  308 
of  celery,  309 
of  leeks,  310 
of  onions,  311 
of  pumpkins,  311 
of  root  crops,  308 
of  squashes,  311 
of  sweet  potatoes,  311 
of    vegetables    for    winter    use, 

chapter  on,  304 
time  of  planting  vegetables  for, 
304 
"Straw  potatoes,"  189 
String  beans,  205 

dwarf,  206 
pole,  206 

two  classes  of,  205 
Striped  cucumber  beetles,  217 
Strychnine  for  poisoning  field  mice, 

223 
Suburban  garden,  269 
plan  of,  270 
tillage  in,  271 
Succession  cropping,  261 
Suckers,  propagation  of  artichoke  by, 

202 
Sucking  insects,  88 
Sugar  corn,  212 
peas,  112 


342 


INDEX 


Suggestions     for     laboratory     work, 

chapter  on,  324 
Summer  radishes,  104 
Sweet  corn,  212 

and  other  crops  with  similar 
cultural   requiremen  ts, 
chapter  on,  212 
culture  of,  213 
planting,  212 
potato  ridges,  tools  for  making, 
256 
tubers,  257 
potatoes,  254 

cultivation,  256 
harvesting,  256 
planting,  255 
propagation  of,  255 
storage  house  for,  307 
storage  of,  311 
tools  used  in  harvesting,  257, 

258 
types,  258 
Swiss  chard,  152 

Systems  of  intensive  cropping,  chap- 
ter on,  260 

Temperature  and  moisture  require- 
ments of  onions,  162 

factor,  chapter  on,  43 

influence    on    quality    of    vege- 
tables, 13 

regulation  of,  313 

requirements  of  Lima  beans,  207 
Temperatures,  for  germination,  75 
Tender  vegetables,  43 
Thickness  of  seeding,  79 

for  growing  onion  sets,  177 
Thinning  muskmelon  plants,  224 

onions,  166 

parsnips,  147 
Tillage  and  fertilizing  of  rhubarb,  200 

conserving  moisture  by,  41 

following  transplanting,  52 

in  a  city  garden,  274 

in  a  small  garden,  271 

in  relation   to  quality  of  vege- 
tables, 14 

of  an  established  asparagus  plan- 
tation, 197 

of  asparagus  the  first  season,  195 

of  onions,  165 

of  plants  under  glass,  68 

of  potatoes,  189 

space  for,  77 

weeding  and  thinning  of  parsnips, 
147 


Time  of  planting,  267 

muskmelons,  221 
vegetables  for  winter  stor- 
age, 304 
Timeliness  in  spraying,  94 
Tobacco  cloth,  frame  covered  with, 

117 
Tomato  leaf  spot,  249 

plant,  pot-grown,  53 

pruned  to  a  single  stem,  248 
plants  ready  for  transplanting,  50 
sprayed  and  unsprayed,  249 
rust,  249 

seed,  washing,  19 
wilt,  250 
Tomatoes,  244 

adaptation  of  varieties,  248 
bench  of  hothouse,  317 
cultivation,  246 
diseases  of,  249 
forcing,  316 
grading,  288 
growing  the  plants,  244 
picking,  248 
properly  packed,  292 
pruning,  247 
row  of  staked,  247 
staking,  246 
transplanting,  245 
Tools,  dibber,  55 

transplanting  machine,  56 
trowel,  56 

used  in  harvesting  sweet  pota- 
toes, 257,  258 
used  in  preparing  sweet  potato 

ridges,  256 
used  in  onion  culture,  165 
Topping  onions,  169 
Transpiration,  reducing,  53 
Transplanted  crops  that  mature  be- 
fore the  heat  of  summer,  chapter 
on,  114 
Transplanting,  age  of  plants,  49 

behavior  of  different  plants,  49 

celery  plants,  135 

chapter  on,  48 

character  of  plants  desired  for,  49 

economic  questions  involved  in, 

48 
eggplants,  251 
lettuce  seedlings,  52 
machine,  56 
machines,  57 

means  of  insuring  moisture  fol- 
lowing, 51 
method  of  growing  onions,  112 


INDEX 


343 


Transplanting,  methods  of,  55 

muskmelons,  225,  226 

onions,  174 

precautions  for  successful,  125 

principle  of  successful,  49 

reasons  for,  48 

removing    tops   preparatory  to, 
54 

tillage  following,  52 

tomatoes,  245,  246 

watering  when,  53 
Trap  crops,  84 
Tree  onions,  180 
Trenches,  planting  celery  in,  136 
Trial  grounds,  seedsmen's,  21 
Troubles,  greenhouse,  314 
Trowel,  56 
Truck  crops,  rotations  including,  45 

farming,  3 
Truck-growing,  3 

as  an  adjunct  to  general  farming,  4 
Trucking,  3 
Turnip,  107 
Turnip-rooted  celery,  141 

culture,  142 
Turnips,  105 

fall  crop  of,  106 

spring,  106 
Types  of  onions,  172 

of  squashes,  237 

of  sweet  potatoes,  258 

of  vegetable  growing,  chapteron,  1 

Unplanted    land,    treatment    of,    to 

conserve  moisture,  71 
Upland  cress,  159 
Use  of  glass  in  vegetable  growing, 

chapter  on,  58  . 

Value  of  vegetable  crops  in  the  United 

States,  322 
Varieties  of  tomatoes,  adaptation  of, 
248 
of  vegetablesfor  the  home  garden, 

274 
standard,  14 
Variety  factor,  the,  14 
Vegetable  boxes,  load  of,  285 

garden,  diagram  of  farmer's,  266 


Vegetable  growing,  home,  6 
use  of  glass  in,  58 

marrow,  238,  240 

oyster,  148 

storage  houses,  306 
Vegetables,  care  of  between  harvest- 
ing and  marketing,  279 

chemical  composition  of,  327 

for  a  city  garden,  272 

for  the  cannery,  5 

freshness  of,  12 

hardy,  43 

preparation  for  market,  284 

tender,  43 

varieties  for  the  home  garden, 
274 
Ventilation,  object  of,  67 
Village  garden,  269 
Vine  crops,  chapter  on,  217 
Vitality  of  seeds,  21 
Vitamins  in  vegetables,  328 

Warm  season  crops,  45 

classified,  97 
that  require  transplant- 
ing, chapter  on,  244 
Washing  vegetables,  286 
Water  for  celery,  133 

sources  of  irrigation,  39 

supply  in  humid  regions,  35 
sources  of,  35 
Watering  plants  under  glass,  68 

when  transplanting,  53 
Watermelon    plants    in    veneer    dirt 

band,  53 
Watermelons,  231 

cultivation  of,  232 

for  home  use,  234 

preparations  for  planting,  231 

size  of,  233 
Wax  beans,  205 
Weeding  onions,  166 
Weevils  in  seed  peas  or  beans,  85 
Wheel  hoe,  166 
White  hellebore,  92 
Wilt  of  tomatoes,  250 
Winter  protection  of  artichokes.  201 

radishes,  104 
Worms,  cabbage,  126 


M:rt. 


■ 


